Design of Machine Elements

Machine Design

Machine design is defined as the use of scientific principles,

technical information and imagination in the description of a machine
or a mechanical system to perform specific functions with maximum
economy and efficiency.
Its important features:

• A designer uses principles of basic and engineering sciences such as

physics, mathematics, statics and dynamics, thermodynamics and
heat transfer, vibrations and fluid mechanics.

• The designer has technical information of the basic elements of a

machine. These elements include fastening devices, chain, belt and
gear drives, bearings, oil seals and gaskets, springs, shafts, keys,
couplings, and so on.
Its important features:

• The designer uses his skill and imagination to produce a

configuration, which is a combination of these basic elements.

• The final outcome of the design process consists of the description of

the machine.
Its important features:

• A design is created to satisfy a recognized need of customer.

Basic Requirements of Machine Elements

• Strength - A machine part should not fail under the effect of the
forces that act on it.

• Rigidity - A machine component should be rigid, that is, it should not

deflect or bend too much due to forces or moments that act on it.
Basic Requirements of Machine Elements

• Wear Resistance - Wear is the main reason for putting the machine
part out of order.

• Minimum Dimensions and Weight - A machine part should be

sufficiently strong, rigid and wear resistant and at the same time, with
minimum possible dimensions and weight.
Basic Requirements of Machine Elements

• Manufacturability - Manufacturability is the ease of fabrication and

assembly.

• Safety - The shape and dimensions of the machine parts should

ensure safety to the operator of the machine.
Basic Requirements of Machine Elements

• Conformance to Standards - A machine part should conform to the

national or international standard covering its profile, dimensions,
grade and material.

• Reliability - Reliability is the probability that a machine part will

perform its intended functions under desired operating conditions
over a specified period of time.
Basic Requirements of Machine Elements

• Maintainability - A machine part should be maintainable.

Maintainability is the ease with which a machine part can be serviced
or repaired.

• Minimum: Life-cycle Cost - Life-cycle cost of the machine part is the

total cost to be paid by the purchaser for purchasing the part and
operating and maintaining it over its life span.
Engineering Materials
Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

1. strength - the ability of the material to resist, without rupture,

external forces causing various types of stresses.
Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

2. elasticity - the ability of the material to regain its original shape and
size after the deformation, when the external forces are removed.
Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

3. plasticity - the ability of the material to retain the deformation

produced under the load on a permanent basis.
Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

4. stiffness - the ability of the material to resist deformation under the

action of an external load.
Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

5. resilience - the ability of the material to absorb energy when

deformed elastically and to release this energy when unloaded.
Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

6. toughness - ability of the material to absorb energy before fracture

takes place.
Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

7. malleability - ability of a material to deform to a greater extent

before the sign of crack, when it is subjected to compressive force.
Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

8. ductility - ability of a material to deform to a greater extent before

the sign of crack, when it is subjected to tensile force.
Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

9. brittleness - property of a material which shows negligible plastic

deformation before fracture takes place
Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

10. hardness - the resistance of the material to penetration or

permanent deformation.
Cast Iron

Cast iron is a generic term, which refers to a family of materials

that differ widely in their mechanical properties. By definition, cast iron
is an alloy of iron and carbon, containing more than 2% of carbon.
BIS System of Designation of Steels

A large number of varieties of steel are used for machine

components. Steels are designated by a group of letters or numbers
indicating any one of the following three properties:
▪ tensile strength;
▪ carbon content; and
▪ composition of alloying elements.
Plain-Carbon Steels

Classification:
1. Low Carbon Steel contains less than 0.3% carbon.
2. Medium Carbon Steel has a carbon content in the range of 0.3% to
0.5%.
3. High Carbon Steel contains more than 0.5% carbon.
Free-Cutting Steels

Steels of this group include carbon steel and carbon–manganese steel

with a small percentage of sulphur.
Alloy Steels

Alloy steel is defined as carbon steel to which one or more

alloying elements are added to obtain certain beneficial effects.
Common alloying elements:

1. Silicon is present in almost all steels. It increases strength and

hardness without lowering the ductility.
Common alloying elements:

2. Manganese Most steels contain some manganese remaining from

the deoxidisation and desulphurisation processes.
Common alloying elements:

3. Nickel increases strength, hardness and toughness without

sacrificing ductility.
Common alloying elements:

4. Chromium increases hardness and wear resistance.

Common alloying elements:

5. Molybdenum increases hardness and wear resistance. It can

withstand extreme temperatures without significantly expanding or
softening.
Common alloying elements:

6. Tungsten - Tungsten and molybdenum have similar effects. It is an

expensive alloying element and about 2 to 3 per cent tungsten is
required to replace 1 per cent of molybdenum.
Overseas Standards

• The American Society for Testing

Materials (ASTM) has classified grey cast
iron by means of a number.
Overseas Standards

• In Germany, Deutches Institut Fuer Normung

(DIN) has specified grey cast iron by
minimum ultimate tensile strength in
kgf/mm2.
Overseas Standards

• A numbering system for carbon and alloy

steels is prescribed by the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) of USA and

American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI).

Numerical Codes
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) system is based on the use of
four-or five-digit numbers.
1xxx Carbon Steel
2xxx Nickel steels
3xxx Nickel-chromium steels
4xxx Molybdenum steels
5xxx Chromium steels
6xxx Chromium-vanadium steels
7xxx Tungsten steels;
8xxx Nickel-chromium-molybdenum steels
9xxx Silicon-manganese steels.
SAE 5130 indicates a chromium steel alloy, containing 1% of chromium and
0.30% of carbon.

SAE 1045 Type of steel (carbon). Percent of alloy (none). Carbon content
(0.45-percent carbon).

SAE 2330 Type of steel (nickel). Percent of alloy (3-percent nickel). Carbon
content (0.30-percent carbon).

SAE 71650 Type of steel (tungsten).Percent of alloy (16-percent tungsten).

Carbon content (0.50-percent carbon).

SAE 50100 Type of steel (chromium). Percent of alloy (less than l-percent
chromium). Carbon content (1-percent carbon).
How a grain structure was formed
Cold & Hot Working Process
Cold & Hot Working Process
Heat Treatment
Heat Treatment of Steels

The heat treatment process consists

of controlled heating and cooling of
components made of either plain carbon
steel or alloy steel, for the purpose of
changing their structure in order to obtain
certain desirable properties like hardness,
strength or ductility.
The major heat treatment processes
1. Annealing consists of heating the component
to a temperature slightly above the critical
temperature, followed by slow cooling. It
reduces hardness and increases ductility.
The major heat treatment processes
2. Normalizing is similar to annealing, except that the component is
slowly cooled in air. It is used to remove the effects of the previous heat
treatment processes.
The major heat treatment processes
3. Quenching consists of heating the component
to the critical temperature and cooling it rapidly
in water or air. It increases hardness and wear
resistance. However, during the process, the
component becomes brittle and ductility is
reduced.
The major heat treatment processes
4. Tempering consists of reheating the quenched component to a
temperature below the transformation range, followed by cooling at a
desired rate. It restores the ductility and reduces the brittleness due to
quenching.
Case Hardening of Steels

Case hardening can be achieved by the following two ways:

• by altering the structure at the surface by local hardening, e.g., flame
or induction hardening.
Case Hardening of Steels

Case hardening can be achieved by the following two ways:

• by altering the structure as well as the composition at the surface,
e.g., case carburizing
• Flame Hardening - hardening process whereby the surface
temperature of the steel is raised above the upper critical
temperature by means of an oxy-acetylene torch and then quenched
by a water spray.
• Induction Hardening - hardening process in which high temperatures
are produced by high frequency alternating currents.

• Carburizing - type of case hardening where low carbon steel is heated

on the surface to form a "case".
Cast Steel

Pouring molten steel of desired chemical composition into a

mould and allowing the steel to solidify produces cast steel
components. Steel castings can be made from any type of carbon and
low alloy steels.
CAST IRON usually refers to gray iron,
ductile iron and malleable iron. Which is
an iron casting with carbon content
higher than 2%.

CAST STEEL usually refers to normal carbon

steel and alloy steel. Which is a steel
casting with carbon content
lower than 2%.
There are two varieties of steel castings:

1. Carbon steel castings are used for heavy duty machinery, highly
stressed parts and gears.
• Low carbon steel contains lower levels of carbon content and is
known for its ductility, weldability and machinability.
• Mid carbon steel contains medium levels of carbon content and is
known for its wear resistance. These are commonly used for military
and defense applications including engine components, couplings,
crankshafts, aircraft tubing and firearms.
There are two varieties of steel castings:

2. High tensile steel castings have higher strength, good toughness and
high resistance to wear.
• High tensile castings are crucial components for automotive, building
constructions and other engineering activities. These are commonly
used by engineering for building, bridges, automotive, etc.
Aluminium Alloys

Aluminium alloys are recent in origin compared with copper or

steel. However, due to a unique combination of certain mechanical
properties, they have become the most widely used nonferrous metal.

By mass, aluminium is the most abundant metal in the Earth’s

crust and the third most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon)
Aluminium alloys offer the following design advantages:

• Low Specific Gravity

• Corrosion Resistance
• Ease of Fabrication
• High Thermal Conductivity
Copper Alloys

Copper possesses excellent thermal and electrical conductivity. It

can be easily cast, machined and brazed.

Copper does not react with water, but it does slowly react with
atmospheric oxygen to form a layer of brown-black copper oxide which,
unlike the rust that forms on iron in moist air, protects the underlying
metal from further corrosion
Some of the popular copper alloys:

▪ Brass the most commonly used copper

alloy is brass. It is an alloy of copper and zinc.

▪ Bronze is an alloy of copper and elements

other than zinc. In some cases, bronze may
contain a small amount of zinc.
Some of the popular copper alloys:

▪ Gunmetal is an alloy of copper which contains 10%

tin and 2% zinc. The presence of zinc improves
fluidity of gunmetal during casting process. Also
known as red brass in United States.

▪ Monel metal is a copper–nickel alloy. It contains

65% nickel and 32% copper. It has excellent corrosion
resistance to acids, alkalis, brine water, sea water and
other chemicals.
Die-Casting Alloys

The die casting process consists of forcing the molten metal into
a closed metal die.
The advantages of the die casting process are as follows:

▪ Small parts can be made economically in large quantities.

▪ Surface finish obtained by this method is excellent and requires no
further finishing.
▪ Very thin sections or complex shapes can be obtained easily.
Ceramics

Ceramics can be defined as a compound of metallic and non-

metallic elements with predominantly ‘ionic’ interatomic bonding.

A ceramic is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant and

corrosion-resistant materials made by shaping and then firing a
nonmetallic mineral, such as clay, at a high temperature. Common
examples are earthenware, porcelain, and brick.
Plastics

Plastics are synthetic materials processed by heat and pressure.

They are perhaps the most widely used group of polymers.
Popular trade names of the material:

1. Polyamide (Nylon, Capron Nylon, Zytel, Fosta) Polyamide is a

thermoplastic material. It has excellent toughness and wear resistance.
The coefficient of friction is low. It is used for gears, bearings, conveyor
rollers and automotive cooling fans.
Popular trade names of the material:

2. Low-density Polyethylene (Polythene) It is a thermoplastic material.

It is flexible and tough, light in weight, easy to process and a low-cost
material. It is used for gaskets, washers and pipes.
Popular trade names of the material:

3. Acetal (Delrin) It is a thermoplastic and a strong engineering material

with exceptional dimensional stability. It has low coefficient of friction
and high wear resistance. It is used for self-lubricating bearings, cams
and running gears. (Polyoxymethylene)
Popular trade names of the material:

4. Polyurethane (Duthane, Texin) It is a thermoplastic and a tough,

abrasion-resistant and impact-resistant material. It has good
dimensional properties and self-lubricating characteristics and is used
for bearings, gears, gaskets and seals.
Popular trade names of the material:

5. Polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon) It is a thermoplastic material. It has

low coefficient of friction and self-lubricating characteristics. It can
withstand a wide range of temperatures from –260 to + 250°C. It is
ideally suitable for self-lubricating bearing.
Popular trade names of the material:

6. Phenolic It is a thermosetting plastic material. It has low cost with a

good balance of mechanical and thermal properties. It is used in clutch
and brake linings as filler material. Glass reinforced phenolic is used for
pulleys and sheaves.
Natural and Synthetic Rubbers

Natural rubber is obtained from rubber

latex, which is a milky liquid obtained from
certain tropical trees.
Synthetic rubber has properties similar to those of
natural rubber. A few applications of synthetic rubber are
as follows:

1. Chloroprene (Neoprene) Conveyors and V belts,

brake diaphragms and gaskets

2. Nitrile Butadiene (NBR) Bushes for fexible coupling

and rubber rollers
A few applications of synthetic rubber are as follows:

3. Polysulfide (Thikol) Gaskets, washers and diaphragms

4. Chlorosulfonyl Polyethylene (Hypalon) Tank lining, high

temperature conveyor belts, seals and gaskets, silicone
Seals, gaskets and O-rings
Creep

Creep strength of the material is defined as the maximum stress

that the material can withstand for a specified length of time without
excessive deformation.
Selection of Material

The factors which should be considered while selecting the material for
a machine component are as follows:
▪ Availability
▪ Cost
▪ Mechanical Properties
▪ Manufacturing Considerations
Manufacturing Consideration in Design
The manufacturing processes can be broadly classified into the
following three categories:

Casting Processes
In these processes, molten metals such as cast iron, copper,
aluminum or nonmetals like plastic are poured into the mould and
solidified into the desired shape, e.g., housing of gear box, flywheel
with rim and spokes, machine tool beds and guides.
The manufacturing processes can be broadly classified into the
following three categories:

Deformation Processes
In these processes, a metal, either hot or cold, is plastically
deformed into the desired shape. Forging, rolling, extrusion, press
working are the examples of deformation processes. The products
include connecting rods, crankshafts, I-section beams, car bodies and
springs.
The manufacturing processes can be broadly classified into the
following three categories:

Material Removal or Cutting Processes

In these processes, the material is removed by means of sharp
cutting tools. Turning, milling, drilling, shaping, planing, grinding,
shaving and lapping are the examples of material removal processes.
The products include transmission shafts, keys, bolts and nuts.
Tolerances & Allowances
Limit
A limit is the range of sizes that a component must be made
within, sizes being defined as a number expressed in a unit of
measurement. Limits have a maximum and minimum
Tolerance
In manufacturing processes, tolerance is the amount of allowable
deviation in a specific dimension of a part.
Fits
Fit is defined as the relationship between two mating parts with
respect to their dimensional difference prior to assembly. The fit
represents the range of tightness or looseness which may result from
the design of mating parts.
Types of Fits
• Clearance fit is a fit which always provides a
positive clearance between the hole and the
shaft over the entire range of tolerances.
• Interference fit is a fit which always provides a
positive interference over the whole range of
tolerances.
• Transition fit is a fit which may provide either
a clearance or interference, depending upon
the actual values of the individual tolerances
of the mating components.