vibration

Article
Study on Fluid–Structure Interaction of a Camber
Morphing Wing
Yuanjing Wang, Pengxuan Lei, Binbin Lv *, Yuchen Li and Hongtao Guo

China Aerodynamics Research and Development Center, Institute of High Speed Aerodynamics,
Mianyang 621000, China; wyj@cardc.cc (Y.W.); leipengxuan@cardc.cc (P.L.); liyuchen@cardc.cc (Y.L.);
ght@cardc.cc (H.G.)
* Correspondence: lbin@cardc.cc

Abstract: The influence of trailing edge deformation on the aerodynamic characteristics of camber
morphing wings is an important topic in the aviation field. In this paper, a new memory alloy actuator
is proposed to realize trailing edge deformation, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and wind
tunnel experiments are used to study the influence of trailing edge deformation on the aerodynamic
characteristics of the camber morphing wings. The experiments was carried out in a transonic wind
tunnel with Mach numbers ranging from 0.4 to 0.8 and angles of attack ranging from 0◦ to 6◦ . The
external flow fields and aerodynamic force coefficients with and without deformation were calculated
using the CFD method. A loose coupled method based on data exchange was used to achieve a
fluid–structure interaction (FSI) analysis. The research results indicate that when the trailing edge
is deflected downwards, the phenomenon of shock wave forward movement reduces the negative
pressure area on the upper wing surface, increases the pressure on the lower wing surface, and
ultimately increases the total lift. This work provides a new approach for the implementation of
trailing edge deformation and a powerful data reference for the design of camber morphing wings.

Keywords: morphing wing; transonic wind tunnel; CFD; FSI

Citation: Wang, Y.; Lei, P.; Lv, B.; Li,

1. Introduction
Y.; Guo, H. Study on Fluid–Structure
Interaction of a Camber Morphing The next generation of aircrafts [1] should have the ability to independently perform
Wing. Vibration 2023, 6, 1060–1074. multiple tasks, such as takeoff and landing, cruising, maneuvering, hovering, and attacking,
https://doi.org/10.3390/ with optimal aerodynamic performance under variable flight conditions. Therefore, the
vibration6040062 concept of adaptive wing configuration, similar to that of birds [2], holds promise, from
which the idea of morphing wings was born [3]. In the field of engineering, morphing
Academic Editors: Kai Zhou,
bodies refer to the fact that vehicles can continuously change their configurations, which
Hongling Ye, Qi Shuai and
Aleksandar Pavic
are known as morphing wings, for stepless speed regulation of their driving mechanism [4].
The complexity and variability of the flight environment [5], flow parameters (such
Received: 14 October 2023 as Reynolds number, Mach number, etc.), and real-time adjustments of the aerodynamic
Revised: 17 November 2023 configuration can lead to flow instability [6], which results in significant time variance and
Accepted: 22 November 2023 nonlinearity of its aerodynamic characteristics after the wing configuration changes [7].
Published: 12 December 2023
This can make it difficult for the wing to maintain optimal aerodynamic characteristics and
may even pose a threat to flight safety [8]. For example, the upper surfaces of supercritical
wings of large transport aircraft are prone to the phenomenon of shock/boundary layer
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
interaction, which is extremely sensitive to transonic flight conditions. If the wing defor-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. mation cannot accurately respond to this flow phenomenon [9], then it not only fails to
This article is an open access article improve cruise efficiency but may also exacerbate the shock/boundary layer interaction
distributed under the terms and and jeopardize flight safety. In addition, smart actuator materials typically exhibit nonlinear
conditions of the Creative Commons characteristics [10]. For instance, the recovery stress of shape memory alloys increases with
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the increasing temperature, but this pattern exhibits prominent nonlinear characteristics.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ The nonlinearity of the output force of the actuator material will add nonlinear character-
4.0/). istics to the aerodynamic forces during morphing [11]. Under such complex multi-force

Vibration 2023, 6, 1060–1074. https://doi.org/10.3390/vibration6040062 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/vibration

Vibration 2023, 6 1061

coupling, the structural deformation response will become difficult to judge. At the same
time, structural deformation responses can, in turn, affect the aerodynamic forces and
driving forces, which makes the problem more complicated.
The above analysis shows that the complexity of the flow around a deformable wing
at high speeds [12], the coupling between smart driving materials, and the structural
deformation responses increase the difficulty of accurately grasping the aerodynamic
characteristics and structural deformation. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct high-speed
wind tunnel tests and fluid–structure interaction calculations for morphing aircrafts [13],
which will help to reveal the flow phenomena and mechanisms, promote the development
of wind tunnel tests and numerical simulation techniques, and accelerate the practical
applications for morphing wings [14].
One approach that has been applied is to obtain aerodynamic forces by changing the
configuration of supercritical wings [15]. For example, foldable wings based on structures
of bat or bird wings were designed by Clement Ader. The wing area can be reduced by
one-third or even half. In order to achieve such a large area change, designers used flexible
skin, but this type of skin has a small elastic modulus and insufficient stiffness. Under
slightly larger aerodynamic loads, the skin will deform and cannot maintain its shape [16].
Furthermore, an insufficient elastic modulus can also lead to low tensile, bending, and
shear strengths of the skin, thereby limiting flight speed. The application of morphing wing
technology [17] represents a compromise between rigid and flexible structures because of
the high-speed aerodynamic loads acting on the traditional flexible skin [18]. Moreover,
the traditional drive method has a small power-to-weight ratio. The aerodynamic benefits
brought about by complex drive mechanisms cannot compensate for the disadvantages
caused by the excessive mechanism weight [19]. With the continuous development of
materials science, the emergence of smart materials brings hope for solving these problems.
Drives based on smart materials [20] often have larger power-to-weight ratios, higher
energy efficiency levels, and better volumetric efficiency. The drive structure comprises a
simplified smart material and the weight of the drive mechanism is reduced by using this
new material [15]. Various drive structures can be designed to achieve complex and diverse
configuration changes while meeting the volume, weight, and stability requirements.
Smart materials act as sensors and controllers [21] while being a part of the structure [22].
Specifically, smart materials can serve as skins, beams, or ribs for wing structures. They
cannot only withstand aerodynamic loads but also drive the wing’s deformation [23]
according to the control signals. Therefore, morphing wings based on smart materials
have gradually become a hot research topic. In the design phase, the aerodynamic data
can be acquired via wind tunnel testing or the CFD method [19], and then the control
system can be checked. The trailing edge of the morphing wing is deformed by a kind of
flexible structure, which can control the influences of aeroelastic deformation and structural
resistance. Therefore, the morphing wing mechanics model involves the coupling among
aerodynamics [24], structural forces, and driving forces. At low-speed flight conditions, the
influence of the aerodynamic forces can be ignored, and the change in the aerodynamic
configuration is only the result of structural forces and driving forces. The aerodynamic
forces and structural deformation are decoupled [25], and the system model is relatively
simple. By using this model, satisfactory results can be obtained for a finite element analysis
and CFD calculation. However, in high-speed flight conditions, it is necessary to consider
the coupling between the three forces. Therefore, research should be carried out through
fluid–structure interaction analysis or wind tunnels experiments [26].
With the rapid development of materials science, shape memory alloy (SMA) actuators
with the shape memory effect (SME) are coming to be widely used in the aviation field. In
general, an SMA actuator consists of a driver section and an execution section. The working
principle of the SMA actuator is that when the SMA springs are heated, their material
structure undergoes a phase transformation, and their shape-restoring force overcomes
the spring tension and generates action. It should be noted that an SMA can generate
significant restoring force during deformation process. Due to their high power-to-weight
 heated, their material structure undergoes a phase transformation, and their shape
restoring force overcomes the spring tension and generates action. It should be noted tha
an SMA can generate significant restoring force during deformation process. Due to their
high power-to-weight ratio, small size, and simple structure, shape memory alloy
Vibration 2023, 6 actuators are commonly used as one of the preferred actuators for wing variant 1062structure
Lv et al. [15] proposed a smart structure based on a shape memory alloy for driving the
morphing trailing edge, which was validated in a transonic wind tunnel. In 2023, Grigorie
et al. [27]
ratio, smalldeveloped an automatic
size, and simple structure,control technology
shape memory alloyfor an SMA-based
actuators are commonly actuation
used system
So,one
as it isofevident that SMA
the preferred actuators
actuators for wing have tremendous
variant structure. Lvpotential inproposed
et al. [15] the aviation industry.
a smart
structure based
In this on a[28],
work shapethe
memory alloy of
influence fortrailing
driving theedgemorphing
deflectingtrailing edge, which was
is investigated. Firstly, the
validated in a transonic wind tunnel. In 2023, Grigorie et al. [27]
SMA-based actuation method to deflect the trailing edge of a supercritical airfoil was developed an automatic
control
studiedtechnology for an SMA-based
[29]. Subsequently, actuation
a coupling system.between
analysis So, it is evident that SMA actuators
the aerodynamic and structura
have tremendous potential in the aviation industry.
model was carried out. A wind tunnel model [30] was manufactured, which can satisfy
In this work [28], the influence of trailing edge deflecting is investigated. Firstly, the
the requirements of high-speed wind tunnel tests. The numerical and experimental results
SMA-based actuation method to deflect the trailing edge of a supercritical airfoil was
were analyzed.
studied In this way,
[29]. Subsequently, the relationship
a coupling between
analysis between thethe aerodynamic
aerodynamic forces, structura
and structural
deformation, and control forces of the morphing wings
model was carried out. A wind tunnel model [30] was manufactured, which can satisfy was ascertained.
In summary,
the requirements in order towind
of high-speed improve
tunnelthe safety
tests. and reliability
The numerical of morphing
and experimental wings, it is
results
necessary
were analyzed. to Instudy their
this way, the aerodynamic
relationship between characteristics
the aerodynamic and structural deformation
forces, structural
deformation, and control in
delicately. Therefore, forces
thisofstudy,
the morphing wings element
both finite was ascertained.
simulation and wind tunne
In summary, in order to improve the safety
experiments were used to explore the influence of trailing edge and reliability of morphing
deformation wings, onit importan
is
necessary to study their aerodynamic characteristics and structural deformation delicately.
parameters such as pressure distribution, vorticity distribution, Mach number
Therefore, in this study, both finite element simulation and wind tunnel experiments were
distribution, trailing edge lift, etc., for their potential to further reduce the weight of the
used to explore the influence of trailing edge deformation on important parameters such
wings
as and distribution,
pressure improve thevorticity
power-to-weight
distribution, ratio.
Mach This work distribution,
number proposes a memory-alloy-based
trailing edge
actuator
lift, etc., forto their
drivepotential
trailing toedge deformation,
further reduce the and weightit assists us to and
of the wings further understand
improve the the
fluid–structure ratio.
power-to-weight interaction
This workcharacteristics of deformable wings
proposes a memory-alloy-based at high
actuator speeds,
to drive as well as
trailing
the coupling
edge deformation, relationship
and it assistsbetween
us to furthersmart drivingthematerial
understand characteristics
fluid–structure interactionand the
characteristics
structural deformationof deformable wings at It
response. high
alsospeeds,
lays asthewell as the coupling
foundation relationship
for future research on
between smart driving material characteristics and the structural
deformable wings and accelerates the practical application of such wing engineering. deformation response.
It also lays the foundation for future research on deformable wings and accelerates the
practical application of such wing engineering.
2. Model Definition and Morphing Structures
ThisDefinition
2. Model study focuses on the supercritical
and Morphing Structures airfoil. In our investigation, the wing span and
the chord of the
This study airfoilonwere
focuses 365 mm, and
the supercritical 150 mm,
airfoil. In ourrespectively.
investigation,The blockspan
the wing of the
andmodel a
the
a 0°chord
angleofwas
the airfoil
aboutwere 365 mm,
2 percent. and
The 150 mm, respectively.
right-hand The block
rule coordinate wasofchosen
the model
withat the
a x-axis
◦ angle was about 2 percent. The right-hand rule coordinate was chosen with the x-axis
0pointing in the flow direction and the y-axis pointing towards the lower wall (as shown
pointing
in Figurein1).
theThe
flowtrailing
direction andof
edge thethe
y-axis pointing
model would towards the lower
be deflected inwall
the (as
x–zshown
plane.in
Figure 1). The trailing edge of the model would be deflected in the x–z plane.

Figure 1. Model coordinates.

Figure 1. Model coordinates.
One cantilever beam of a smart structure based on SMA wire was designed. The SMA
wire was fixed on the dentate connectors, which were designed inside the model (Figure 2).
The wires were arranged along the model span at intervals of 15 mm, which can reduce
installation complexity. The SMA material was titanium nickel alloy wire, and the phase
transformation temperatures were MS = 20 ◦ C, MF = 9 ◦ C, AS = 45 ◦ C, and Af = 56 ◦ C,
 was about 60 °C. A power switch controlled the deflection, and the w
Vibration 2023, 6, FOR PEER REVIEW flow in the wind tunnel. The SMA wire was pre-stretched with a 5.6 4
the installation, and a specific pre-load was retained. The cavity on
Vibration 2023, 6
filled with glass glue, and the model profile was maintained1063after th
driveOnemechanism.
cantilever beam of a smart structure based on SMA wire was designed. The SMA
wire was fixed on the dentate connectors, which were designed inside the model (Figure
To verify
respectively. SMA wire,thewithdeformation
a diameter of 1 mm, capacity
was heatedof flexible
with joint
an electricity structures,
current of
2).
2.5The wireswas
A, which were arranged
supplied by along the
a stable model
power span and
source, at intervals of 15 mm, temperature
the corresponding which can reduce
conducted
installation ◦ C.to
was about 60complexity.
validate
A powerThe
switch
the
SMA results.
material
controlled
As
was
the
shown
titanium
deflection,
inthe
Figure
nickel
and
3, the
alloy were
wires wire, andairfoil
cooled the pro
by phase
deformation
transformation
flow wereThe
in the windtemperatures
tunnel. measured
SMAwerewire using
MSwas= 20 a coordinate
°C, MF = 9with
pre-stretched °C, aAS machine.
= 45
5.6% °C, and
pre-strainThe
Af =validati
before 56 °C,
respectively.
the SMA
installation, andwire,
a with
specific a diameter
pre-load was of 1 mm,
retained.
that, compared with the hinge-type mechanism, the wing profilewas
The heated
cavity onwith
the an
low electricity
surface was current
of 2.5 A,
filled which
with glasswas supplied
glue, and the by a stable
model power
profile was source, and after
maintained the corresponding
the installationtemperature
of the
achieved
driveabout
was a
mechanism. smooth transition before and after structure
60 °C. A power switch controlled the deflection, and the wires were cooled bydeformation.
flow in the wind tunnel. The SMA wire was pre-stretched with a 5.6% pre-strain before
the installation, and a specific pre-load was retained. The cavity on the low surface was
filled with glass glue, and the model profile was maintained after the installation of the
drive mechanism.
To verify the deformation capacity of flexible joint structures, ground tests were
conducted to validate the results. As shown in Figure 3, the airfoil profiles before and after
deformation were measured using a coordinate machine. The validation results indicated
that, compared with the hinge-type mechanism, the wing profile used in this study
achieved a smooth transition before and after structure deformation.

Figure
Figure 2. Morphing
2. Morphing structuresstructures based
based on SMA. on SMA.
To verify the deformation capacity of flexible joint structures, ground tests were
conducted to validate the results. As shown in Figure 3, the airfoil profiles before and
after deformation were measured using a coordinate machine. The validation results
indicated that, compared with the hinge-type mechanism, the wing profile used in this
Figure 2. Morphing
study achieved structures
a smooth based before
transition on SMA.and after structure deformation.

Figure 3. Coordinate machine measurement results.

Figure 3. Coordinate machine measurement results.
Figure 3. Coordinate machine measurement results.
3.3.Test
Testandand Numerical
Numerical Methods Methods
3.1.
3. Facilities
Test and Numerical Methods
3.1. Facilities
The test was conducted in a transonic wind tunnel with Mach numbers ranging from
3.1. Facilities
The
0.4 to 3.5. Thetest
upper was
andconducted
lower walls of intheatest
transonic
section were wind tunnel
slotted, and thewith
The test was conducted in a transonic wind tunnel with Mach numbers ranging from
Mach nu
side walls
were solid and equipped with rectangular optical windows for camera recording. The
0.4to to
0.4 3.5.3.5.
The
supercritical
The
upper
airfoil
upper
andand
model
and
lower lower
walls
its relative of thewalls
locationtest of the
section
in the
test
were
test section
section
slotted,
are shownand were
the side
in Figure
slotted
4. walls
were
were solid
solid and and equipped
equipped with rectangular
with rectangular optical windows optical windows
for camera forThe
recording. cam
supercritical airfoil model and its relative location in the test section are shown in Figure
supercritical airfoil model and its relative location in the test section
4.
4.
FOR PEER REVIEW 5

Vibration 2023,
Vibration 2023,6,6 FOR PEER REVIEW 1064

Figure 4. Model in the test section.

Trailing edgeFigure
Figure 4.4.Model
Model
deflection in in the
was
the testtest section.
driven
section. by shape memory alloy structures. Pressure
distribution was measured
Trailing
by deflection
using the pressure scanning valve and the pressure
Trailingedgeedge deflectionwaswas driven by shape
driven memory
by shape alloy structures.
memory PressurePressur
alloy structures.
sensitive paint (PSP) technique
distribution was (only
measured the
by upper
using the surface
pressure pressure
scanning distribution).
valve and the The
pressure test
sensitive
distribution was measured by using the pressure scanning valve and the pressur
Mach numbers ranged
paint (PSP)from 0.4 to(only
technique 0.8. the
Model
uppersurface pressure
surface pressure distribution
distribution). The was measured
test Mach numbers
sensitive paint (PSP) technique (only the upper surface pressure distribution). The tes
ranged
at the attack angles from
to 6.0.4
of 0numbers The to 0.8. Model surface
deflection angle pressure
of the distribution
model wasedge
trailing measured at the attack
was measured
Mach
angles of 0 to 6. Theranged from angle
deflection 0.4 toof0.8.
theModel
modelsurface
trailing pressure
edge was distribution
measured bywas usingmeasured
by using the video motion
at the attack detector
angles (VMD)
of 0 (VMD) system,
to 6. The which
deflection comprised an industrial camera,
the video motion detector system, whichangle of theanmodel
comprised trailing
industrial edge
camera, was measured
industry
industry computer,by light
using source,
the video and
motion markers.
detector The
(VMD) angle measurement
system, which precision
comprised
computer, light source, and markers. The angle measurement precision of the VMD system an of the camera
industrial
VMD system was was0.01°.
0.01 .Eighteen
industry ◦ computer, groups
Eighteen groupslight of ofmarkers
markers
source, and were
markers.
were located
located The on
angle
on the the
upper upper
surface surface
measurement of
of theprecision
model of th
the model (Figure VMD5), with
(Figure system a lateral
5), with a lateral
was interval
interval
0.01°. of 20
of
Eighteen 20groups
mmmmand and a longitudinal
ofa markers
longitudinal interval
interval
were locatedof 5on
mm.of 5upper
the mm.surface o
the model (Figure 5), with a lateral interval of 20 mm and a longitudinal interval of 5 mm

Figure
on the5.5.model
Figure 5. MarkersFigure Markers on the model surface.
Markerssurface.
on the model surface.

VMD is an optical measurement method that can determine the spatial coordinat
VMD is an optical measurement method that can determine the spatial coordinate
VMD is an optical measurement method that can determine the spatial coordinate
positionofofthe
position the model
model surface
surface through
through a series
a series of photos
of photos with marked
with marked points, thereby
points, thereby
position of the determining
model surface
determining the
the
through
target a series
deformation.
target Thisof
deformation.
photos
technology
This
with markedsuitable
is particularly
technology
points,
is particularly for thereby
measuring
suitable for measuring
determining thethe
target deformation.
of wing This
and technology
control surface is particularly
models during suitable
wind tunnel for
the deformation of wing and control surface models during wind tunnel tests. in
deformation measuring
tests. As shown As shown
the deformation inof Figure
wing
Figure and
6, the6,VMDcontrol
the VMDsurface
system was models
composed
system of during wind
an industry
was composed antunnel
of camera and tests.
lenses,
industry As shown
an industrial
camera and lenses, an
in Figure 6, thecomputer,
industrial
a light source,
VMD system computer, wasaand marked points
composed
light source, of
andan
on the model surfaces.
industry
marked pointscamera and lenses,
on the model surfaces.an
industrial computer, a light source, and marked points on the model surfaces.
Vibration
Vibration2023,
2023,6,6FOR PEER REVIEW 6
1065

Figure
Figure6.6.VMD
VMDsystem.
system.

AAlow-head
low-headtorsion
torsionofofthe
themodel
modelcaused
causedby bywind
windload loadwill
willaffect
affectthe
thetheoretical
theoreticalangle
angle
of attack of the trailing edge. The corrected angles of attack are − 0.5 ◦ , 1.5◦ , 3.4◦ , and
of attack of the trailing edge. The corrected angles of attack are −0.5°, 1.5°, 3.4°, and 5.3°
5.3◦ (corresponding
(corresponding to theoretical
to theoretical anglesangles of of
of attack attack 0◦and
0°, 2°,of4°, , 2◦ ,6°),
4◦ , with 6◦ ),shape
and the with the shape
memory
memory alloy temperature as 40 ◦ C.
alloy temperature as 40 °C.
3.2. Numerical Methods
3.2. Numerical Methods
3.2.1. CFD Model
3.2.1. CFD Model
Regardless of the mass force, the conservation form of the Navier–Stokes equation
Regardless
in the Cartesian of the mass force,
coordinate systemthe conservation
was appliedform (when of theα =Navier–Stokes equation
0, the equation in
was the
the Cartesian
Euler equation): coordinate system was applied (when α = 0 , the equation was the Euler
equation): ∂Q ∂E ∂F ∂G ∂Ev ∂Fv ∂Gv
+ + + = α( + + ), (1)
∂t Q ∂x E∂y F∂z G ∂xE ∂yF ∂z G
where:
+ + + = α( v + v + v ) , (1)
 t x y z x y z 
ρw ρv ρu
where:  ρuw   ρvu   ρu2 + p 
2
     
G =  ρvw , F =  ρv + p , E = 
   
 ρuv ,
 (2)
 ρw  ρw + pρv   2    ρvw ρu   ρuw 
 ρuw  (ρet + pρvu )w  (ρetρu
+2 p+)vp  (ρet + p)u
   2   

0 G =  ρvw  , F =  ρv +0 p  , E =  ρuv  ,
  
0
 (2)
τxx  ρw  + p 
2
 ρvw τxy   ρuw  τxz
     
  
   
Ev =   t , F =   t   t , G = 
τxy (ρe + p)w
v
 (ρe +τ p)v
yy (ρe
 + vp)u  τ zy
, (3)
     
 τxz τyz τzz 
uτxx + vτxy + wτxz − q x uτxy + vτyy + wτyz − qy uτxz + vτzy + wτzz − qz
 0   0   0 
 τxxwherein, the  stress items: τ   τ 
   xy
  xz

τxy τzy
Ev =   , Fτvxx= = 2µux −τyy23 µ(ux + vy ,+Gwvz )=,  , (3)
 τxz   τ   τ 
τxy = τyx = yz µ ( u + v ),
 x (4)
zz
 uτ + vτ + wτ - q  y
 uτ + vτ + wτ - q 
 xx xy xz x  τyy = 2µv uτ xy
+
y − 3 µ ( u x + vy + wz ),
vτ yy 2
+ wτ yz
- q y  xz zy zz z 
wherein, the stress items:
Vibration 2023, 6 1066

τzz = 2µwz − 32 µ(u x + vy + wz ),

τyz = τzy = µ(vz + wy ), (5)
τxz = τzx = µ(uz + wx ),
Heat conduction terms:
∂T ∂T ∂T
qy = −k ; q x = −k ; qz = −k , (6)
∂y ∂x ∂z

The total energy per unit mass of gas:

p u2 + v2 + w2
e= + , (7)
( g − 1)r 2

Gas state equation: p = ρRT; h = c p T.

Viscosity coefficient: computed using the Sutherland formula or Keys formula.
Turbulence model: the S-A viscosity model was applied.
The time term was implicitly discretized, and the dual-time method was adopted. By
using the “sub-iteration” technology of the pseudo-time method, the time derivative terms
could be decomposed into the second-order precision lower upper-symmetric Gauss–Seidel
(LU-SGS) scheme. The viscous term was discretized with the central difference scheme,
and the convection term was discretized using a non-oscillating and non-free-parameter
dissipative finite difference (NND) scheme.
The inflow conditions of turbulent kinetic energy and turbulent dissipation are
as follows:
3
k ∞ = ρ ∞ ( T · µ ∞ )2 , (8)
2

v∞ = 10k ∞ /µl , (9)

The initial condition is consistent with the incoming flow condition. The walls were
a non-slip surface. Turbulent kinetic energy and turbulent dissipation were calculated
as follows:
uwall = 0, vwall = 0, wwall = 0
60µ1 , (10)
k wall = 0, ωwall = 2
ρ1 β ( d1 )

In order to ensure the accuracy of the turbulence calculation, the normal wall should
be arranged with sufficiently dense boundary later mesh to meet the requirements y+ < 1.

3.2.2. Structural Motion Calculation

The generalized structural motion equation can be expressed as follows:
 .. .
[ M] q(t) + [ D ] q(t) + [K ]{q(t)} = { F (t)}, (11)

N
{w( x, y, z, t)} = ∑ qi (t){ ji (x, y, z)}, (12)
i =1

3 {
{ F (t)} = ∑ D f i ( x, y, z, t) ji ( x, y, z)ds, (13)
i =1

Here, we do not make linear assumptions about the structure, and the generalized
mass, damping, and stiffness matrix are related to the structural deformation. Based on
finite element calculation software, the structural deformation under the action of multiple
forces was computed, and the solid wall boundary conditions (structural displacement)
required for flow field calculation were obtained.
Vibration 2023, 6 1067

3.2.3. Fluid–Structure Interaction Mode

The fluid–structure interaction analysis of deformable bodies was a quasi-steady anal-
ysis process. The time history of numerical simulation is not an important issue; therefore,
the loose coupling method is widely used in the fluid–structure interaction problem of de-
formable bodies. Fluid mechanics equations and structural mechanics equations are solved
independently, and data exchange only occurs between aerodynamic load and structural
displacement during the calculation. This coupling method is similar to parallel research of
two independent courses since there is no direct connection between the two courses except
for the relevant data exchange; therefore, different models can be replaced separately for
comparative research when necessary, which takes up few computer system resources.

3.2.4. Data Exchange between Different Physical Fields

The infinite plate spline (IPS) method and radial basis function (RBF) method are
mainly used to transfer data between fluid mechanics and structure mechanics
interaction calculations.
The principle of the IPS method is to treat the known data as a plate described by the
simulation function wi (xi ,yi ). The plate satisfies the static equilibrium equation, in which D
is the elastic coefficient of the plate and q is the load distribution of the plate. It is assumed
that the solution of the equation is as follows:
N
w( x, y) = a0 + a1 x + a2 y + ∑ Fi ri2 lnri2 , (14)
i =1

where
ri2 = ( x − xi )2 + (y − yi )2 , (15)
Taking displacement interpolation as an example, as long as N + 3 unknown param-
eters in the above equation are determined ( a0 , a1 , a2 , F1 , F2 , . . . , FN ), N equations can be
constructed from N data points, and three equations of force and moment balance need to
be added:
N N N
∑ Fi = 0, ∑ xi Fi = 0, ∑ yi Fi = 0, (16)
i =1 i =1 i =1

Set the parameter vector p = ( a0 , a1 , a2 , F1 , F2 , . . . , FN ) T , and

 
0 0 0 1 ··· 1
0
 0 0 xs1 ··· xsns 

0
 0 0 ys1 ... ysns 

Css = 1 xs1 ys1
 2 lnr2
r12 · · · r1n 2 lnr2 , (17)
. 12 1n s 

. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . .


2 2
1 xsns ysns r1ns lnr1ns · · · rns ns lnrns ns 2 2

 
1 x f1 y f1 r2f s lnr2f s · · · r2f1 sn lnr2f1 sn
1 1 1 1 s s
1 x f2 y f2 r2f s lnr2f s · · · r2f2 sn lnr2f2 sn
 
2 1 2 1

s s
Afs =  .. .. .. .. .. , (18)
 
..
. . . . . . 
r2f n s lnr2f n s · · · r2f n sn lnr2f n sn
 
1 x fn y fn
f f f 1 f 1 f s f s

Then:
*
u s = Css · p, (19)
*
u s = A f s · p, (20)
* −1 *
u f = A f s · p = A f s · Css · u s, (21)
 Then:
us = C ss  p ,
(19)

us = A fs  p ,
Vibration 2023, 6
(20)
1068
-1
u f = A fs  p = A fs  Css  us ,
(21)
The
The structural
structural displacement
displacement interpolation matrix is
is obtained
obtained as
as follows:
follows:
-1
HH
=A=fs A C ss·,C −1 ,
fs ss
(22)
(22)
whichimplies
which implies
* *
u f =uH  usH, · u s ,
f = (23)
(23)

T T
s = H
Fs =FH Fa , · Fa , (24)
(24)
The
The coarseness
coarseness ofof the
the mesh will affect
mesh will affect the
the accuracy
accuracyand
andefficiency
efficiencyofofthe
thecalculation.
calculation.
The calculation grid used in this research is shown in Figure 7. The mesh size
The calculation grid used in this research is shown in Figure 7. The mesh size of the of themodel
model
surface is 1 × 105 , and the computation domain size is 1200 (circumferential) × 140 (radial),
surface is 1 × 105, and the computation domain size is 1200 (circumferential) × 140 (radial),
totalling
totalling168,000
168,000 grid
grid nodes.
nodes.

Figure7.7. Partial
Figure Partial view
view of
of calculation
calculation grid.
grid.

Figure 88 shows
Figure shows aa comparison
comparison between
between the the calculated
calculated values
values andand literature
literaturevalues
values
underthe
under the conditions
conditions of Ma == 0.721,
0.721,ReRe==4040××1010 6 , and
6, and 0.032° ◦ angle
0.032angle of attack. TheThe
of attack. results of
results
the
of trailing
the trailing edge
edgeand
andthethelower
lowerwing
wingsurface
surfacematch
matcheacheachother
otherwell.
well.There
Thereare
arecertain
certain
differencesbetween
differences betweenthe the results
results near
near the leading edge and and the
the shock
shockwave
waveregion.
region.ItItshould
should
be noted that this
be noted that this set set of grids is suitable for
for Reynolds numbers above one million, andthe
Reynolds numbers above one million, and the
wallgrid
wall gridy+y+ isis in the range of 0.7~1.1.
0.7~1.1. However,
However,the theexperimental
experimentalReynolds
Reynoldsnumber
numberininthethe
literature is
literature is above
above ten million, whichwhich leads
leads toto aa larger
largerwall
wallgrid
gridy+y+ranging
rangingfrom
from7 7toto14.
14.
Vibration 2023, 6, FOR PEER REVIEW 10
Therefore, the
Therefore, the difference
difference between
between the results is understandable.
understandable. The Theresults
resultsshowed
showed that
that
thegrid
the gridquality
quality waswas good
good enough to meet the requirements
requirements of of this
this research.
research.

-1.6
EXP-NASA
This paper
-1.2

-0.8

-0.4
Cp

0.0

0.4

0.8

1.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
x/c

Comparison
Figure8.8.Comparison
Figure of airfoil
of airfoil calculation
calculation results
results and experimental
and experimental results. results.

4. Results
4.1. Comparison of CFD Results with Test Results
Unless otherwise specified, the following experiments were conducted at a Mach
number of 0.8. Since this work did not focus on the influence of Mach numbers, no other
 0.4

0.8

1.2
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Vibration 2023, 6 x/c 1069

Figure 8. Comparison of airfoil calculation results and experimental results.

4. Results 4. Results
4.1. Comparison
4.1. Comparison of CFD
of CFD Results Results
with with Test Results
Test Results
Unless specified,
Unless otherwise otherwise specified, the following
the following experiments
experiments were conducted
were conducted at a at
Macha Mach
number of 0.8. Since this work did not focus on the influence of Mach
number of 0.8. Since this work did not focus on the influence of Mach numbers, no other numbers, no other
Mach number experiments were conducted. As shown in Figure 9, CFD could simulate
Mach number experiments were conducted. As shown in Figure 9, CFD could simulate the
the pressure distribution and shock wave position at the airfoil’s leading edge and
pressure distribution and shock wave position at the airfoil’s leading edge and whether the
whether the airfoil’s trailing edge was deflected. In general, the numerical simulation
airfoil’s trailing edge was deflected. In general, the numerical simulation could correctly
could correctly show the pressure distribution changes. However, compared with CFD
show the pressure
results,distribution changes.ofHowever,
due to the influence compared
PSP, the kinetic with
energy CFD results,
decreased in thedue to the
experiments,
influence of resulting
PSP, theinkinetic energy
relatively lowerdecreased in the and
flow acceleration experiments, resulting
a lower pressure peak.in relatively
lower flow acceleration and a lower pressure peak.

Vibration 2023, 6, FOR PEER REVIEW 11

4.2. Effect of Wing Deformation on Flow Structure

In Figure 10, the effect of wing deformation on vorticity distribution can be seen.
In Figures 11 and 12, the shock wave position on the upper wing moves forward, and
the pressure recovery on the trailing edge becomes worse when the trailing edge is
deflected. As can be seen from the streamlines in the vorticity distribution, the dominant
range of the separated vortex induced by the shock wave was enlarged after the trailing
edge was deflected, which was equivalent to an increase in the airfoil thickness and the
drag of the airfoil. The results also showed that the trailing edge deformation weakened
the flow velocity or the shock wave (lower angles of attack) strength of the lower surface,
which made the pressure distribution smoother and the lift coefficient of the entire airfoil
higher. The trailing edge deflection caused the shock wave position to move forward,
thereby causing the flow separation point induced by the shock wave to move forward,
expanding the flow separation area, and increasing the pressure drag coefficient of the
airfoil. On the other hand, due to the fact that the pressure coefficients on the airfoil surface
within9.the separation
Comparison zone were
between CFD basically
and test the same, the expansion of the separation zone
Figure Figure 9. Comparison between CFDresults.
and test results.
increased the lift on the trailing edge of the airfoil, thereby increasing the lift coefficient of
4.2.
the Effect of Wing Deformation on Flow Structure
airfoil.
In Figure 10, the effect of wing deformation on vorticity distribution can be seen.

Figure 10. Effect of deformation on pressure distribution.

Figure 10. Effect of deformation on pressure distribution.
In Figures 11 and 12, the shock wave position on the upper wing moves forward,
and the pressure recovery on the trailing edge becomes worse when the trailing edge is
deflected. As can be seen from the streamlines in the vorticity distribution, the dominant
range of the separated vortex induced by the shock wave was enlarged after the trailing
edge was deflected, which was equivalent to an increase in the airfoil thickness and the
drag of the airfoil. The results also showed that the trailing edge deformation weakened
the flow velocity or the shock wave (lower angles of attack) strength of the lower surface,
Vibration 2023, 6 1070

which made the pressure distribution smoother and the lift coefficient of the entire airfoil
higher. The trailing edge deflection caused the shock wave position to move forward,
thereby causing the flow separation point induced by the shock wave to move forward,
expanding the flow separation area, and increasing the pressure drag coefficient of the
airfoil. On the other hand, due to the fact that the pressure coefficients on the airfoil surface
within the separation zone were basically the same, the expansion of the separation zone
Vibration 2023, 6, FOR PEER REVIEW
increased the lift on the trailing edge of the airfoil, thereby increasing the lift coefficient12of
the airfoil.

(a) Effect of wing deformation on pressure distribution

(b) Effect of wing deformation on Mach number distribution

(c) Effect of wing deformation on vorticity distribution

Figure11.
Figure 11.Effect
Effect of
of deformation
deformation on
on aerodynamics
aerodynamics characteristics
characteristics(α
(α==4°).
4◦ ).
Vibration 2023, 6 1071
Vibration 2023, 6, FOR PEER REVIEW 13

(a) Effect of wing deformation on pressure distribution

(b) Effect of wing deformation on Mach number distribution

(c) Effect of wing deformation on vorticity distribution

Figure12.
Figure 12. Effect
Effect of
of deformation
deformation on
on aerodynamic
aerodynamic characteristics
characteristics (α
(α =
= 6°).
6◦ ).

4.3.
4.3. Deformation’s
Deformation’s Impact
Impact onon Aerodynamic
Aerodynamic Characteristics
Characteristics
The effect of deformation on trailing
The effect of deformation on trailing edgeedge
lift and
lift pitch moment
and pitch relativerelative
moment to the flexible
to the
joint is shown in Figure 13. The results showed that the trailing edge deformation
flexible joint is shown in Figure 13. The results showed that the trailing edge deformation signifi-
cantly increased
significantly the lift the
increased andlift
moment of the model
and moment trailing.
of the model The higher
trailing. the angle
The higher the of attack,
angle of
the more
attack, thepronounced the increment
more pronounced of the trailing
the increment of the edge lift,edge
trailing which
lift,made
whichit made
more difficult
it more
for the trailing
difficult for theedge to be
trailing deformed.
edge to be deformed.
 Vibration 2023, 6, FOR PEER REVIEW 14
Vibration 2023, 6 1072

Figure 13. Effect of deformation on lift and moment of trailing edge.

Figure 14 shows the effect of deformation on the lift/drag coefficient, lift/drag ratio
andFigure
the polar
Figure13.
curve.
13.Effect
As can be
Effectofofdeformation
deformationon
seen,
onlift
liftand
the lift coefficient
andmoment
momentofoftrailing
trailingedge.
edge.
of the airfoil increases after the
trailing edge deformation, while its increment decreases with the angle of attack
Figure 14 shows the effect of deformation on the lift/drag coefficient, lift/drag ratio,
increasing. The14drag
Figure shows coefficient
the effect ofwas also increased
deformation after the
on the lift/drag trailinglift/drag
coefficient, edge deformation
ratio,
and the polar curve. As can be seen, the lift coefficient of the airfoil increases after the
whichand the polar curve. As can be seen, the lift coefficient of the airfoil
resulted in a decrease in the lift/drag ratio. In other words, the aerodynamic increases after the
trailing edge deformation, while its increment decreases with the angle of attack increasing.
trailing edge
characteristics of deformation,
the was
morphing while its here
airfoil increment decreases with the angle of curves
attack
The drag coefficient also increased after thewere not
trailing improved.
edge deformation, The polar
which resulted of the
increasing. The drag coefficient was also increased after the trailing edge deformation,
deformed airfoil
in a decrease in and undeformed
the lift/drag ratio. Inairfoil basically
other words, coincided, indicating
the aerodynamic that
characteristics under the
of the
which resulted in a decrease in the lift/drag ratio. In other words, the aerodynamic
morphing airfoil
samecharacteristics
lift coefficient, here were not improved. The polar curves of the deformed
the drag and lift/drag ratio of the deformed airfoil and undeformed airfoil and
of the morphing airfoil here were not improved. The polar curves of the
undeformed
airfoil were the airfoil
same. basically coincided, indicating thataunder themoment
same lift coefficient, the while
deformed airfoil andThe deformation
undeformed airfoilprovided control
basically coincided, for the
indicating that underairfoil
the
drag and lift/drag ratio of the deformed airfoil and undeformed airfoil were the same.
maintaining the same lift/drag ratio.
same lift coefficient, the drag and lift/drag ratio of the deformed airfoil and undeformed
The deformation provided a control moment for the airfoil while maintaining the same
airfoil were
lift/drag the same. The deformation provided a control moment for the airfoil while
ratio.
maintaining the same lift/drag ratio.

Figure 14. Effect of airfoils’ morphing on aerodynamic coefficients.

Figure 14. Effect of airfoils’ morphing on aerodynamic coefficients.
Figure 14. Effect of airfoils’ morphing on aerodynamic coefficients.
Vibration 2023, 6 1073

5. Conclusions
The effect of airfoil morphing on the flow field and aerodynamic coefficients were
ascertained by using the existing fluid–structure interaction calculation method. The
following conclusions are drawn:
(1) The results obtained using CFD and wind tunnel testing were consistent with
each other and well under the condition of M = 0.8. The trailing edge deformation made
the shock wave position move forward along the airfoil’s upper surface, and the suction
peak decreased;
(2) The downward deflection of the airfoil trailing edge made the flow velocity of the
lower wing change more smoothly, and the lift increased;
(3) The lift and drag coefficients of the deformed airfoil were increased, while the
lift/drag ratio was slightly reduced.
In summary, this paper provides a reference for the design of camber morphing wings
and gives guiding data for the fluid–structure interaction mechanism of trailing edge
deformation. Although this work contributes to the reliability and safety of cambered
morphing wings’ design, there are still some issues that need to be solved in the future.
Tools such as particle image velocimetry can be used to visualize the flow field, and Mach
numbers’ influence can be determined in further research.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.W. and B.L.; software, Y.W.; validation, P.L., Y.L. and
H.G.; formal analysis, Y.L.; investigation, Y.W. and B.L.; resources, Y.W. and B.L.; data curation, B.L.;
writing—original draft preparation, Y.W.; writing—review and editing, P.L., B.L., Y.L. and H.G.;
supervision, B.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data for this work are available from the corresponding author
upon reasonable request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature

cp Isobaric specific heat

ρ∞ Incoming flow density
u∞ Incoming flow velocity
T Incoming flow turbulence
µl Laminar viscosity coefficient of the incoming flow
Density of the first layer of the grid center near the object surface and the distance
ρ1 , d1
to the model surface
{w( x, y, z, t)} Structural deformation vector of the model surface
{ F (t)}, {q(t)} Generalized displacement and the generalized aerodynamic force, respectively
[ M ], [ D ], [ K ] Generalized mass, damping, and stiffness matrices of the structure
{ F (t)} Generalized aerodynamics, which link the structure with aerodynamics
Fs, Fa Structural point force vector and aerodynamic force vector, respectively

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