12th PHYSICS Wave Optics Rapid revision

 Light propagation.
(1) Different theories :

Newtons corpuscular Huygen’s wave Maxwell’s EM wave Einstein’s quantum de-Broglie’s dual
theory theory theory theory theory of light

(i) Based on Rectilinear (i) Light travels in a (i) Light travels in the (i) Light is produced, (i) Light propagates
propagation of light hypothetical form of EM waves with absorbed and both as particles as
medium ether (high speed in free space propagated as packets well as waves
elasticity very low 1 of energy called
density) as waves c= photons
0  0
(ii) Light propagates in the (ii) He proposed that (ii) EM waves consists (ii) Energy associated (ii) Wave nature of
form of tiny particles light waves are of of electric and magnetic with each photon light dominates when
called Corpuscles. Colour longitudinal nature. field oscillation and hc light interacts with
E = h =
of light is due to different Later on it was they do not require  light. The particle
size of corpuscles found that they are material medium to h = planks const. nature of light
transverse travel dominates when the
= 6 . 6  10 −34 J - sec light interacts with
 = frequency matter (micro-scopic
 = wavelength particles )

(2) Optical phenomena explained () or not explained () by the different theories of light
S. Phenomena Theory
No. Corpuscula Wave E.M. wave Quantum Dual
r
(i) Rectilinear Propagation     
(ii) Reflection     
(iii) Refraction     
(iv) Dispersion ×   × 
(v) Interference ×   × 
(vi) Diffraction ×   × 
(vii) Polarisation ×   × 
(vii) Double refraction ×   × 
(viii) Doppler’s effect ×   × 
(ix) Photoelectric effect × × ×  

(3) Wave front :

(i) Suggested by Huygens
(ii) The locus of all particles in a medium, vibrating in the same phase is called Wave Front (WF)
(iii) The direction of propagation of light (ray of light) is perpendicular to the WF.
(iv)
Plane WF
Spherical WF
Cylindrical WF

Light ray Light rays

Point source
Line source

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(v) Each point on a WF acts as a source of new disturbance called Secondary wavelets. Secondary wavelets
spread out as spherical secondary WF with the speed of light

The tangential surface to all the secondary wave

Point source
fronts gives new WF.

Secondary WF
Secondary wavelets
New WF
WF

 Principle of Super Position.

When two or more than two waves superimpose over each other at a common particle of the medium then
the resultant displacement (y) of the particle is equal to the vector sum of the displacements (y1 and y2) produced
by individual waves. i.e. y = y 1 + y 2
(1) Graphical view :
(i) Resultant
1
Waves are meeting at a point in
2 same phase
y1 + y2 = y = y1 + y2

(ii)
1 Resultant

y = y1 – y2
Waves are meeting at a point
y1 + y2 = with out of phase

(2) Phase / Phase difference / Path difference / Time difference

(i) Phase : The argument of sine or cosine in the expression for displacement of a wave is defined as the
phase. For displacement y = a sin  t ; term  t = phase or instantaneous phase
(ii) Phase difference () : The difference between the phases of two waves at a point is called phase
difference i.e. if y 1 = a1 sin  t and y 2 = a 2 sin ( t +  ) so phase difference = 
(iii) Path difference () : The difference in path length’s of two waves meeting at a point is called path

difference between the waves at that point. Also  = 
2
T
(iv) Time difference (T.D.) : Time difference between the waves meeting at a point is TD = 
2
(3) Resultant amplitude and intensity : For two superimposing waves y 1 = a1 sin  t and
y 2 = a 2 sin ( t +  ) where a1 , a 2 → Individual amplitudes,  → Phase difference between the waves at an
instant when they are meeting a point.
(i) Resultant amplitude : A = a12 + a 22 + 2a1 a 2 cos  (ii) Resultant intensity : I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos 

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 Interference of Light
When two waves of exactly same frequency travels in a medium, in the same direction simultaneously then
due to their superposition, at some points intensity of light is maximum while at some other points intensity is
minimum. This phenomenon is called Interference of light.
(1) Types : It is of following two types
Constructive interference Destructive interference
(i) When the waves meets a point with same phase, (i) When the wave meets a point with opposite phase,
constructive interference is obtained at that point (i.e. destructive interference is obtained at that point (i.e.
maximum light) minimum light)
(ii) Phase difference between the waves at the point of (ii)  = 180 o or (2n − 1) ; n = 1, 2, ...
observation  = 0 o or 2n  or (2n + 1) ; n = 0,1,2.....
(iii) Path difference between the waves at the point of 
(iii)  = (2n − 1) (i.e. odd multiple of /2)
observation  = n (i.e. even multiple of /2) 2
(iv) Resultant amplitude at the point of observation will be (iv) Resultant amplitude at the point of observation will
maximum be minimum
A max = a1 + a 2 A min = a1 − a 2
If a1 = a 2 = a 0  A max = 2a 0 If a1 = a 2  A min = 0

(v) Resultant intensity at the point of observation will be (v) Resultant intensity at the point of observation will
maximum be minimum
Imax = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 I min = I1 + I 2 − 2 I1 I 2

I max = ( I1 + I 2 )
2
I min = ( I1 − I 2 )
2

If I1 = I 2 = I 0  I max = 2I 0 If I1 = I 2 = I 0  I min = 0

Note : ❑ In interference redistribution of energy takes place in the form of maxima and minima.
Intensity (I)  amplitude (a) 2
❑
I + I min
❑ Average intensity : I av = max = I1 + I 2 = a12 + a 22
2
❑ Ratio of maximum and minimum intensities :
2 2
 I1 + I 2    2 2
I max
=  =  I1 / I 2 + 1  =  a1 + a 2  a /a +1
 =  1 2 
 I − I   I / I −1 a −a
I min  1 2   1 2   1 2   a1 / a 2 − 1 
❑ Resultant intensity when two identical waves super imposes : If I1 = I 2 = I 0 and phase difference
between the waves at the point of observation is  then

Resultant intensity I = 4 I0 cos 2
2

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 Young’s Double Slit Experiment (YDSE)

Young’s shows that when waves coming from two coherent sources (S 1 , S 2 ) superimposes on each other, an
interference pattern is obtained on the screen.
Screen d – Distance between slits
4 Dark D – Distance between slits and screen
3 Bright
3 Dark
2 Bright  – Wavelength of monochromatic light emitted from
2 Dark source
S1 1 Bright
1 Dark
S d Central bright fringe
1 Dark
S2 1 Bright (or Central maxima)
2 Dark
2 Bright
3 Dark
3 Bright
4 Dark
D

Note : ❑ The fringe pattern obtained due to a slit is more bright than that due to a point.
(1) Coherent sources : The two sources of light, whose frequencies are same and the phase difference
between the waves emitted by which remains constant with time are defined as Coherent sources.
Note : ❑ Laser light is highly coherent and monochromatic.
(2) Fringe : In YDSE alternate bright and dark bands obtained on the screen. These bands are called Fringes.
(i) Central fringe is always bright, because at central position  = 0 o or  = 0
D  
(ii) All fringes are of equal width. Width of each fringe is  = and angular fringe width  = =
d d D
(iii) If the whole YDSE set up is taken in another medium then  changes so  changes
  3
e.g. in water w = a   w = a =  a
w w 4
1
(iv) Fringe width   i.e. with increase in separation between the sources,  decreases.
d
(v) Separation (x ) between fringes
between nth bright and mth bright fringes between nth bright and mth dark fringe
(n  m )
 1
(a) If n  m then x =  n − m +  
 2
x = (n − m )
 1
(b) If n  m then x =  m − n −  
 2

(vi) Position of any dark and bright fringe from central maxima.
n D
(a) Position of nth bright fringe from central maxima x n = = n  ; n = 0, 1, 2 ....
d
(2n − 1)D (2n − 1)
(b) Position of nth dark fringe from central maxima x n = = ; n = 1, 2,3 ....
2d 2

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(3) Condition for observing sustained interference :

(i) The initial phase difference between the interfering waves must remain constant.
(ii) The frequency and wavelengths of two waves should be equal.
(iii) The light must be monochromatic.
(iv) The amplitudes of the waves must be equal for good contrast.
(v) The sources must be close to each other.
(vi) The sources must be narrow.
(4) Identification of central bright fringe : To identify central bright fringe, monochromatic light is replaced
by white light. Due to overlapping central maxima will be white with red edges. On the other side of it we shall get
a few coloured band and then uniform illumination.
(5) Shifting of fringe pattern in YDSE : If a transparent thin film of mica or glass is put in the path of one of
the waves, then the whole fringe pattern gets shifted.
If film is put in the path of upper wave, fringe pattern shifts upward and if film is placed in the path of lower
wave, pattern shift downward. t
D 
fringe shift = ( − 1)t = ( − 1)t 
d  S1
 Additional path difference = ( − 1)t d C

( − 1)t n S2
 If shift is equivalent to n fringes then n = or t =
 ( − 1)
Screen
(6) Other important informations : D

(i) In YDSE, if n1 fringes are visible in a field of view with light of wavelength 1 , while n 2 with light of
wavelength  2 in the same field, then n1 1 = n 2  2 .
(ii) If one slit is illuminated with red light and the other slit is illuminated with blue light, no interference
pattern is observed on the screen.
(iii) If slit width increases, the contrast between the fringes decreases. For very large width uniform
illumination occurs.
(iv) If the two coherent sources consist of object and it’s reflected image, the central fringe is dark instead of
bright one.
(v) In YDSE if I1 = I 2 = I 0 then resultant intensity at central position (i.e.  = 0 o ) = 4 I o
If one of the slits is covered then screen is uniformly illuminated by light of intensity I 0 . Hence intensity at
1 th
central position becomes .
4
I max − I min I1 I 2
(vii) Fringe visibility (V) : V= = 2
I max + I min (I1 + I 2 )
For I min = 0 , V = maximum.
(viii) Missing wavelength in front of one of the slits in YDSE.
S1
d2
Missing wavelength at P  = By putting n = 1, 2, 3 .... d Central
(2n − 1)D
S2 position
d2 d2 d2
Missing wavelengths are  = , , ....
D 3D 5D
D

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 Illustrations of Interference
Interference effects are commonly observed in thin films when their thickness is comparable to wavelength
of incident light (If it is too thin as compared to wavelength of light it appears dark and if it is too thick, this will
result in uniform illumination of film). Thin layer of oil on water surface and soap bubbles shows various colours in
white light due to interference of waves reflected from the two surfaces of the film.

Air
Oil Air

Air
Water
Soap bubble in air
Oil film on water surface

(1) Thin films : In thin films interference takes place between the waves reflected from it’s two surfaces and
waves refracted through it.
Reflected rays

t  r
r

Refracted rays

S.No. Interference in reflected light Interference in refracted light

(i) Condition of constructive interference (maximum Condition of constructive interference (maximum
intensity) intensity)
 
 = 2  t cos r = (2n  1)  = 2  t cos r = (2n)
2 2
For normal incidence r = 0 For normal incidence

so 2  t = (2n  1) 
2
2 t = n

(ii) Condition of destructive interference (minimum Condition of destructive interference (minimum

intensity) intensity)
 
 = 2  t cos r = (2n)  = 2  t cos r = (2n  1)
2 2
For normal incidence 2  t = n  
For normal incidence 2  t = (2n  1)
2

Note : ❑ The Thickness of the film for interference in visible light is of the order of 10,000 Å .

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 Diffraction of Light
It is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an obstacle/aperture of the size of the
wavelength of light.

Shadow
Light

Light Shadow

Aperture Obstacle

Note : ❑ Diffraction is the characteristic of all types of waves.

❑ Greater the wavelength of wave, higher will be it’s degree of diffraction.
❑ Experimental study of diffraction was extended by Newton as well as Young. Most systematic study
carried out by Huygens on the basis of wave theory.
❑ The minimum distance at which the observer should be from the obstacle to observe the diffraction
d2
of light of wavelength  around the obstacle of size d is given by x = .
4
(1) Types of diffraction : The diffraction phenomenon is divided into two types
Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction
(i) If either source or screen or both are at finite distance (i) In this case both source and screen are effectively at
from the diffracting device (obstacle or aperture), the infinite distance from the diffracting device.
diffraction is called Fresnel type.
(ii) Common examples : Diffraction at a straight edge, (ii) Common examples : Diffraction at single slit, double
narrow wire or small opaque disc etc. slit and diffraction grating.

Source Source
Screen Screen
at 
Slit Slit

(2) Diffraction of light at a single slit : In case of diffraction at a single slit, we get a central bright band with
alternate bright (maxima) and dark (minima) bands of decreasing intensity as shown

P I
x 
x + x
S1 

d O
S2 d sin 3 2   2 3
− − −
d d d d d d
D Screen
Slit

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2 D 2
(i) Width of central maxima  0 = ; and angular width =
d d
(ii) Minima occurs at a point on either side of the central maxima, such that the path difference between the
waves from the two ends of the aperture is given by  = n ; where n = 1, 2, 3 ....
n
i.e. d sin  = n  sin  =
d
(iii) The secondary maxima occurs, where the path difference between the waves from the two ends of the

aperture is given by  = (2n + 1) ; where n = 1, 2, 3 ....
2
 (2n + 1) 
i.e. d sin  = (2n + 1)  sin  =
2 2d
(3) Comparison between interference and diffraction
S.No. Interference Diffraction

(i) Results due to the superposition of waves from two Results due to the superposition of wavelets from
coherrent sources. different parts of same wave front. (single coherrent
source)
(ii) D All secondary fringes are of same width but the
All fringes are of same width  =
d central maximum is of double the width
D
 0 = 2 = 2
d
(iii) All fringes are of same intensity Intensity decreases as the order of maximum
increases.
(iv) Intensity of all minimum may be zero Intensity of minima is not zero.
(v) Positions of nth maxima and minima Positions of nth secondary maxima and minima
n D D D n D
x n(Bright ) = , x n (Dark) = (2n − 1) x n (Bright) = (2n + 1) , x n (Dark) =
d d d d

(vi) Path difference for nth maxima  = n 

for nth secondary maxima  = (2n + 1)
2
(vii) Path difference for nth minima  = (2n − 1) Path difference for nth minima  = n

(4) Diffraction and optical instruments : The objective lens of optical instrument like telescope or microscope
etc. acts like a circular aperture. Due to diffraction of light at a circular aperture, a
converging lens cannot form a point image of an object rather it produces a brighter disc
known as Airy disc surrounded by alternate dark and bright concentric rings.
1 . 22 
The angular half width of Airy disc =  = (where D = aperture of lens)
D
The lateral width of the image = f (where f = focal length of the lens)
Note : ❑ Diffraction of light limits the ability of optical instruments to form clear
images of objects when they are close to each other.

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Light
(5) Diffraction grating : Consists of large number of equally spaced
parallel slits. If light is incident normally on a transmission grating, 
the diffraction of principle maxima (PM) is given by d sin  = n ;
where d = distance between two consecutive slits and is called
grating element. II PM I PM Central I PM II PM
maxima

R2 V2 R1 V1 V1 R1 V2 R2
 Polarisation of Light
Light propagates as transverse EM waves. The magnitude of electric field is much larger as compared to
magnitude of magnetic field. We generally prefer to describe light as electric field oscillations.
(1) Unpolarised light : The light having electric field oscillations in all directions in the plane perpendicular to
the direction of propagation is called Unpolarised light. The oscillation may be resolved into horizontal and vertical
component.

Direction of
propagation

Direction of propagation Vertical oscillation Horizontal oscillation

(2) Polarised light : The light having oscillations only in one plane is called Polarised or plane polarised light.
(i) The plane in which oscillation occurs in the polarised light is called plane of oscillation.
(ii) The plane perpendicular to the plane of oscillation is called plane of polarisation.
(iii) Light can be polarised by transmitting through certain crystals such as tourmaline or polaroids.
(3) Polaroids : It is a device used to produce the plane polarised light. It is based on the principle of selective
absorption and is more effective than the tourmaline crystal.
or
It is a thin film of ultramicroscopic crystals of quinine idosulphate with their optic axis parallel to each other.

Polaroid

Plane polarised light

(i) Polaroids allow the light oscillations parallel to the transmission axis pass through them.
(ii) The crystal or polaroid on which unpolarised light is incident is called polariser. Crystal or polaroid on
which polarised light is incident is called analyser.

P A P A

No light

Ordinary light Polarised light Polarised light Ordinary light Polarised light

Transmission axes of the polariser and analyser are parallel to each Transmission axis of the analyser is perpendicular to the
other, so whole of the polarised light passes through analyser polariser, hence no light passes through the analyser

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Note : ❑ When unpolarised light is incident on the polariser, the intensity of the transmitted polarised
light is half the intensity of unpolarised light.
(4) Malus law : This law states that the intensity of the polarised light transmitted through the analyser varies
as the square of the cosine of the angle between the plane of transmission of the analyser and the plane of the
polariser.
(i) I = I0 cos 2  and A 2 = A 02 cos 2   A = A 0 cos 

If  = 0 o , I = I 0 , A = A 0 Intensity = I0
P A
I0 A Amplitude = A0
If  = 45 o , I = , A= 0
2 2

If  = 90 o , I = 0 , A = 0 Ii Intensity = I
(ii) If Ii = Intensity of unpolarised light. Amplitude = A

Ii I
so I 0 = and I = i cos 2  
2 2

(I max − I min )
Note : ❑ Percentage of polarisation =  100
(I max + I min )
(5) Brewster’s law : Brewster discovered that when a beam of unpolarised light is reflected from a
transparent medium (refractive index =), the reflected light is completely plane polarised at a certain angle of
incidence (called the angle of polarisation  p ).

Also  = tan  p Brewster’s law

Unpolarised Plane polarised
light P P light

Partial
polarised

light
Polarisation by reflection

(6) Use of polaroids and optical rotation : Polaroids are used in

(i) Wind screens
(ii) Window panes of aeroplanes
(iii) Camera filters and sun glasses
(iv) 3-D movies
The phenomenon of rotation of plane of polarization by some materials while transmitting polarized light
through them, is known as optical rotation and the corresponding materials are called optically active materials.
Where it is necessary to turn the analyser to the right, the substance is said be dextro-rotatory. Where it is
necessary turn the analyser to the left, the substance is laevo-rotatory.

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 Doppler’s Effect in Light

The phenomenon of apparent change in frequency (or wavelength) of the light due to relative motion
between the source of light and the observer is called Doppler’s effect.
If  = actual frequency,  ' = Apparent frequency, v = speed of source w.r.t stationary observer, c = speed of
light
Source of light moves towards the stationary observer Source of light moves away from the stationary
(v << c) observer (v << c)
 v  v
(i) Apparent frequency   =   1 −  and (i) Apparent frequency   =   1 −  and
 c  c
 v  v
Apparent wavelength   =   1 −  Apparent wavelength   =   1 + 
 c  c
(ii) Doppler’s shift : Apparent wavelength < actual(ii) Doppler’s shift : Apparent wavelength > actual
wavelength, wavelength,
So spectrum of the radiation from the source of light So spectrum of the radiation from the source of light
shifts towards the red end of spectrum. This is called Red shifts towards the violet end of spectrum. This is called
shift Violet shift
v v
Doppler’s shift  =  . Doppler’s shift  =  .
c c

Note : ❑ Relation between Doppler’s shift () and time period of rotation (T) of a star
 2r
 =  ; r = radius of star.
c T
Applications of Doppler Effect :
(i) Determination of speed of moving bodies (aeroplane, submarine etc) in RADAR and SONAR.
(ii) Determination of the velocities of stars and galaxies by spectral shift.
(iii) Determination of rotational motion of sun.
(iv) Explanation of width of spectral lines.
(v) Tracking of satellites.
(vi) In medical sciences in echo cardiogram, sonography etc.

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