.

Wavefronts
What is a wave?

Huygens Principle?

Wavefront ?

Wavelets?

2
 Wave Equations
2𝜋 2𝜋
Plane Wave 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑨 sin( 𝜆 𝑥 − 𝒕) = 𝑨 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 2𝜋𝜐𝒕)
𝑇
𝒚(𝒕) = 𝑨 cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝝎𝒕)

𝝀, 𝐀, 𝐟, 𝐓, 𝐈, 𝐏𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞 Y

Y
𝝀 -A

A X

X
-A
3
 Plane Wave
What is wave?
𝟐𝝅
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 cos 𝒌 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕 𝑺𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚(𝒌) =
𝝀
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 cos 𝑘𝑥 − 𝝎𝑡 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 (𝝎) = 𝟐𝝅𝝊

5
 Wave Equations
❑ Plane Wave : 𝒚 𝒙 = 𝑨 sin 𝒌𝒙

❑ Wave moving towards right : 𝒚(𝒙′) = 𝑨 sin 𝒌𝒙′ 𝒙′ = 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕

❑ Wave moving towards left : 𝒚(𝒙′) = 𝑨 sin 𝒌𝒙′ 𝒙′ = 𝒙 + 𝒗𝒕

Wave freeze in time (∆t = 0)

6
 Wave Equations
Wave moving towards right : 𝒚(𝒙′) = 𝑨 cos 𝒌𝒙′

Expression of travelling wave w.r.t position and time

𝒚(𝒙′ , 𝒕) = 𝑨 cos 𝒌 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕 ∵ 𝒙′ = 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕

Is speed related to wavelength (𝝀) ???

Wave freeze in time (∆t = 0)

7
 Types of waves

Medium required
Medium not required
8
 Wave Equations
Speed of light (c) =𝝂𝝀 ; ( ∴ 𝒗 = 𝝂𝝀)

On substituting we get:

𝒚(𝒙′ , 𝒕) = 𝑨 cos 𝒌 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕 = 𝑨 cos 𝒌𝒙 − 𝒌𝒗𝒕

𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝒚(𝒙′ , 𝒕) = 𝑨 cos 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕 (∵𝒌= )
𝝀 𝝀 𝝀

𝟐𝝅
𝒚(𝒙′ , 𝒕) = 𝑨 cos 𝒌𝒙 − (𝝂𝝀)𝒕 ( ∵ 𝒗 = 𝝂𝝀)
𝝀

𝒚(𝒙′ , 𝒕) = 𝑨 cos 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕 ( ∵ 𝝎 = 2𝛑𝝂)

9
 Complex Numbers
Z = a+ib (rectangular form) =r𝒆𝒊𝜽 (Polar form)

10
 Wave Equations
Plane Wave equations

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
=
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐

𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕

❑ Whether the equations are dimensionally correct or

incorrect?
❑ Whether y(x,t) is the solution of the above equation?
11
 Wave Equations
L.H.S R.H.S
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
=
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐

(𝒎)𝟐 𝟏 (𝒎)𝟐
=
(𝒎)𝟐 (𝒎Τ𝒔)𝟐 (𝒔)𝟐

#Are dimensionally correct

12
 Wave Equations
❑ Speed of light, c =𝝂𝝀 ; ( ∴ 𝒗 = 𝝂𝝀)

On substituting we get:

𝒚(𝒙′ , 𝒕) = 𝑨 cos 𝒌 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕 = 𝑨 cos 𝒌𝒙 − 𝒌𝒗𝒕

𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅
𝒚(𝒙′ , 𝒕) = 𝑨 cos 𝒙 − 𝒗𝒕 (∵𝒌= )
𝝀 𝝀 𝝀

𝟐𝝅
𝒚(𝒙′ , 𝒕) = 𝑨 cos 𝒌𝒙 − (𝝂𝝀)𝒕 ( ∵ 𝒗 = 𝝂𝝀)
𝝀

𝒚(𝒙′ , 𝒕) = 𝑨 cos 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕 ( ∵ 𝝎 = 2𝛑𝝂)

13
 Wave Equations
L.H.S R.H.S
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
=
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐

(𝒎)𝟐 𝟏 (𝒎)𝟐
=
(𝒎)𝟐 (𝒎Τ𝒔)𝟐 (𝒔)𝟐

#Are dimensionally correct

14
 Wave Equations
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨 cos 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕 → [𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆]
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕
→ 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

Wave Equations

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
=
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐

15
 Wave Equations
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨 cos 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕 → [𝑷𝒉𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆]
𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕
→ 𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆

Wave Equations
L.H.S R.H.S
𝟏 𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝟏 𝒅 𝒅
𝒅𝟐 𝒚𝒙,𝒕 𝒅 𝒅 = 𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕
= 𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒗𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝟏 𝒅 𝒅
 𝟐 𝑨 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕
𝒗 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅 𝒅 𝟏 𝒅
 𝑨 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕  𝟐 𝑨 (−𝒊𝝎) 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒗 𝒅𝒕
𝟏
𝒅  𝟐 𝑨 (−𝒊𝝎)(−𝒊𝝎)𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕
 𝑨 (𝒊𝒌) 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕 𝒗
𝟏
𝒅𝒙  𝟐 𝑨 (𝒊𝟐 𝝎𝟐 ) 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕
𝒗
 𝑨 (𝒊𝒌)(𝒊𝒌)𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕 𝟏
 𝟐 −(𝑨 𝝎𝟐 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕 )
𝒗
𝝎𝟐
 𝑨 𝒊𝟐 𝒌𝟐 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕
………(∵ 𝒊𝟐 =-1)  𝟐 −(𝑨 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕 )
𝒗
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈
 −(𝑨 𝒌𝟐 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕
) 𝑐 = 𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕 𝜆 ⇒ 𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆
2𝜋
 − 𝒌𝟐 (𝑨𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕
) 𝑘=
𝜆
 −𝒌𝟐 𝑨 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕 𝜔 2𝜋𝑓 2𝜋 16
= = =𝑘
𝑣 𝑓𝜆 𝜆

 −𝒌𝟐 𝑨 𝒆𝒊 𝒌𝒙−𝝎𝒕
Mathematical Description Of A
Wave • Consider propagation along x-axis of a
coordinate system.
• Waves on a string are transverse;
during wave motion a particle with
equilibrium position x is displaced
some distance y in the direction
perpendicular to the x-axis.
• y is a function of both x and t; y = y(x,
t).
• We call y(x, t) the wave function that
describes the wave. If we know this
function for a particular wave motion,
we can use it to find the displacement
(from equilibrium) of any particle at
any time.
Amplitude A • From this we can find the velocity and
frequency f
angular frequency  = 2f
acceleration of any particle, the shape
of the string, and anything else we
want to know about the behavior of the
string at any time.
Mathematical Description Of A Wave
(contd.)

• The wave disturbance travels from x = 0 to some point x to the right of the origin
in an amount of time given by x/v, where v is the wave speed.
• Motion of point x at time t is the same as the motion of point x = 0 at the earlier
time t – x/v. Hence we can find the displacement of point x at time t
• As Therefore we can write, for time t=t-x/v
We can express it in terms of the period T = 1/f and the wavelength  = v/f
= 2v/
define a quantity k, called the wave
number
Substituting  = 2k and f = 2 v = f
so

 has units rad/s, so the wave number k must have the

units rad/m
 For a wave traveling in the +x direction

Differentiating wrt time to find velocity

Wave equation derivation

From the wave function we can get an expression for the transverse velocity of any particle in a
transverse wave. To find the transverse velocity vy, we take the derivative of the wave function y(x,
t) with respect to t, keeping x constant
The acceleration of any particle is the second partial derivative of y(x, t) with respect
to t:

Similarly,

Therefore,
as
 Interference of Light
Interference
Phenomena of redistribution of Intensity on the superimposition of two or more waves
with the same freq. and zero or constant phase difference.
Types of Interference
Constructive Interference
❑ At some point, when the crest of one wave falls on the crest of another
wave or trough of one falls on the trough of another wave.
❑ Overall Amplitudes increases
❑ Intensity Increases at these points
❑ No loss of energy, however, it is simply redistributed b/w the points of
max. and min Intensity
Destructive Interference
❑ At some point, when the crest of one wave falls on the trough of
another wave and vice versa.
❑ Overall Amplitudes decreases

❑ Intensity decreases or minimum at these points 23

Conditions for sustained & permanent Interference
❑ Two sources should be coherent (same freq., same wavelength, zero or
constant phase difference)
❑ Two sources must emit waves continuously
❑ Separation b/w sources (d) should be small otherwise fringe will be small
𝝀𝑫
and fringes will not be visible separately (𝜷 = )
𝒅
𝝀𝑫
❑ Distance b/w source and screen (D) should be large (𝜷 = ) so fringes will
𝒅
be separately visible.
❑ Amplitudes of the interfering waves should be equal or nearly equal (in this
situation at maxima amp is double and intensity is four times while at the
minima amp intensity will be 0) because the maxima and minima are
visible
❑ Sources should be monochromatic, otherwise different color will produce
their interference pattern (with diff. fringe width for diff. color also the
24
fringes of different colors overlap each other and only few fringes will be
visible
Young’s Double slit Experiment

25
 Theory of Interference
Consider
❑ Two narrow slits (S1 and S2) derive from single monochromatic
source S placed at equidistant from slits.
❑ Resultant intensity at any point P on screen XY due to the

interference of waves from S1 and S2 can be calculated as:

❑ Waves from two coherent sources be given as:

❑ 𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑦2 = 𝐴2 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝛿

(𝐴1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴2 are amp. And 𝛿= phase diff. b/w on reaching at P from S1 and S2)
According to principle of superposition of waves:
y= 𝒚𝟏+ 𝒚𝟐
y= 𝑨𝟏 sin 𝝎𝒕+ 𝑨𝟐 sin 𝝎𝒕 + 𝜹
y= 𝑨𝟏 sin 𝝎𝒕+ 𝑨𝟐 sin 𝝎𝒕 cos 𝜹 +𝑨𝟐 cos 𝝎𝒕 si𝑛 𝜹
𝑨𝟏+ 𝑨𝟐 cos 𝜹=𝑹 cos 𝜽……..(2)
y= sin 𝝎𝒕 (𝑨𝟏+ 𝑨𝟐 cos 𝜹 ) + cos 𝝎𝒕 (𝑨𝟐 sin 𝜹 ) …….(1) 𝑨𝟐 sin 𝜹 =𝑹 sin 𝜽…………….(𝟑)
From (1), (2), and (3), we get
y= sin 𝝎𝒕 (𝑹 cos 𝜽) + cos 𝝎𝒕 (𝑹 sin 𝜽)
y= R sin(𝝎𝒕 + 𝛉)………………………(4)
Squaring and adding eqn. (2) and (3)
𝑅2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑨𝟏+ 𝑨𝟐 cos 𝜹 2 + 𝑨𝟐 sin 𝜹 2 26
𝑅2 = 𝑨𝟏2 + 𝑨𝟐2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛿 + 2𝑨𝟏𝑨𝟐 cos 𝜹 + 𝑏 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛿
𝑅2 = 𝑨12 + 𝑨𝟐2 + 2𝑨𝟏𝑨𝟐 cos 𝜹
𝑅 = 𝑨 2 + 𝑨 2 + 2𝑨 𝑨 cos 𝜹
 Theory of Interference

Resultant intensity at P is proportional to the square of the amp. of resultant wave

𝑰 ∝ 𝑹𝟐
𝑰 = 𝒌 𝑹𝟐
𝑰 = 𝒌 (𝑨12 + 𝑨𝟐2 + 2𝑨𝟏𝑨𝟐 cos 𝜹 )

27
 Diffraction
Diffraction:
Phenomena of bending of light around the corner of an obstacle or aperture in the path of
light and spreading into the geometrical shadow of an obstacle
Condition for Diffraction
Bending becomes much more pronounced when dimension of the aperture is
comparable to the wavelength of incident light.

Types of diffraction
❑ Fresnel diffraction
❑ Fraunhofer diffraction

28
 Diffraction
Diffraction:
Phenomena of bending of light around the corner of an obstacle or aperture in the path of
light and spreading into the geometrical shadow of an obstacle
Condition for Diffraction
Bending becomes much more pronounced when dimension of the aperture is
comparable to the wavelength of incident light.

Types of diffraction
❑ Fresnel diffraction
❑ Fraunhofer diffraction

29
 Diffraction
Intensity distribution in the diffraction pattern due to single slit

𝟐
𝟐
sin 𝜶
𝑰 = 𝑨 = 𝑰𝟎
𝜶

2α = is the phase difference b/w secondary

waves
I0 = Intensity of the incident beam
A= amplitude of the incident beam

30
 Fresnel Vs Fraunhofer diffraction

Fresnel Fraunhofer
1. Distance b/w either Distance b/w source of
sources or screen or both is light and screen is infinite
finite from the diffracting from the diffracting
aperture aperture
2. No any lens is required Convex lens is used to
render the beam parallel
before it falls on the
aperture.
3. Incident wavefront is Incident wavefront is
either cylindrical or Plane wavefront
spherical

31
 Interference Vs Diffraction

Interference Diffraction
1. Superposition of light Superposition of secondary
waves originating from two wavelets coming from
different wavefronts different parts of the same
coming from coherent wavefront.
sources.
2. Fringes may or may not Fringe width is never
be the same equal and go on decreasing
as we move away.
3. Interference minima is Intensity of minima is
generally 0 and there is never 0 so contrast b/w
good contrast b/w maxima maxima and minima is
and minima. very poor.
4. Intensity of maxima is Intensity of maxima is not 32
same same.
 Diffraction grating
An arrangement of very large number of narrow slits of equal width placed side
by side and separated by an opaque portion is known as Diffraction Grating

Grating is constructed by ruling equidistant parallel lines by diamond point pen

on glass surface. The order of lines on the grating is 15000 or 6000 lines per inch.

Width of the line is called transparency and is denoted by a, whereas gap

between two lines act as opacity (opaque) is denoted by b

Grating element (is the distance b/w consecutive opacity and transparency) = (a+b)

𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜶 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑵𝜷 𝟐
Formula for intensity; 𝑰 = 𝑹𝟎 𝟐 𝜶 𝜷

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛼 𝟐
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆, 𝑹𝟎 𝟐 = this factor represents
𝜶
intensity pattern due to diffraction at single slit.
and

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑵𝜷 𝟐 33
this factor represents distribution of intensity
𝜷
in the diffraction pattern due to interference of waves
from N slits.
 Doppler effect
1842- Scientist Doppler gave this idea, it is used in astronomical measurements, radar,
navigation, etc.

Doppler effect is all about Apparent frequency and Relative motion. Frequency
of sound emitted from source remains same, but the freq. observed by the
observer gets modifies

When car approaches

❑ Sounds : Shrillness or pitch increases
(Apparent) Frequency increases

When car goes far

❑ Sounds: Shrillness or pitch decreases
34
(Apparent) Frequency decreases
 Doppler effect
1. Source (Vs=0) and Observer (Vo=0) both at rest
Let the freq. of sound emitted by source (fs) is 100
Hz.
So, what freq. of sound observer (f0) will
observe??

1. Source (Vs) approaching observer and

Observer (Vo=0) at rest. Let the freq. (fs) of
sound emitted by source is 100 Hz.
So, what freq. (f0) of sound observer will
observe??

1. Source (Vs) moving away from observer and

Observer (Vo=0) at rest. Let the freq. (fs) of
sound emitted by source is 100 Hz. 35
So, what freq. (f0) of sound observer will
observe??
 Doppler effect
1. When source approaches observer apparent freq. of observer (f0) increases
2. When source moves away from apparent freq. of observer (f0 ) decreases

Case I Observer is approaching source

Observer is moving with speed (𝜐o) towards the source. Source (𝜐s=0) is at rest emitting some
𝜐
sound waves at speed (𝜐) so the frequency of the emitted wave (fs) =𝜆
𝜐+𝜐o
Frequency (fo) observed by the observer = 𝜆

Case II Observer is approaching source

Observer is moving with speed (𝜐o) away from the source. Source (𝜐s=0) is at rest
𝜐
emitting some sound waves at speed (𝜐) so the frequency of the emitted wave (fs) =𝜆
𝜐−𝜐o
Frequency (fo) observed by the observer = 𝜆

36
 Doppler effect
1. When source approaches observer apparent freq. of observer (f0) increases
2. When source moves away from apparent freq. of observer (f0 ) decreases

Case I Observer is approaching source

Observer is moving with speed (𝜐o) towards the source. Source (𝜐s=0) is at rest emitting some
𝜐
sound waves at speed (𝜐) so the frequency of the emitted wave (fs) =𝜆
𝜐+𝜐o
Frequency (fo) observed by the observer = 𝜆

Case II Observer is moving away source

Observer is moving with speed (𝜐o) away from the source. Source (𝜐s=0) is at rest
𝜐
emitting some sound waves at speed (𝜐) so the frequency of the emitted wave (fs) =𝜆
𝜐−𝜐o
Frequency (fo) observed by the observer = 𝜆

Case II Observer at rest source approaching

𝜐 37
Frequency (fo) observed by the observer = fs
𝜐−𝜐o
Periodic transverse waves Periodic longitudinal w
For a periodic wave frequency f , angular frequency = 2f, and period T = 1/f = 2.

The wave that results is a symmetric The wave that results is a symmetric
sequence of crests and troughs. sequence of regions of high and low
density
 Longitudinal wave

The disturbance travels or propagates with a definite speed

through the medium. This speed is called the speed of
propagation, or simply the wave speed (v). Its value is
determined in each case by the mechanical properties of the
medium. The wave speed is not the same as the speed with
which particles move when they are disturbed by the wave.
 Sound Waves
❑ The human ear is sensitive to waves in the frequency range from about 20 to 20,000 Hz,
called the audible range

Ultrasonic Sound : Above Audible limit

Infrasonic Sound : Below Audible limit

❑ Sound wave propagating in +x direction

𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨 cos 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕 :

X,Y are measured parallel to each other

A- maximum displacement from its equilibrium position (displacement amplitude)

40
 Sound Waves
Perception of sound waves

1. Loudness: Greater the pressure amplitude, grater the perceived loudness.

Ear is not equally sensitive to all frequencies

2. Pitch: Frequency of sound waves determines the pitch

3. Harmonics: f, 2f, 3f, 4f…….1st, 2nd, 3rd, (overtones)

Two tones produced by two different musical instruments have some
fundamental frequency

4. Timbre: Two different instruments have some fundamental frequency, but

different harmonic content

5. Noise: Combination of all frequencies

41
Sound waves as pressure fluctuations

S
 Sound waves as pressure fluctuations
Relationship between displacement(x) and pressure(p) fluctuation in a propagating sound wave.
Change in displacement between neighbouring points affects the volume of an imaginary
cylinder in the medium, which in turn influences the pressure.

The mathematical derivation:

❑ Volume Change: The difference in displacement at two points changes the volume ΔV.
𝒅𝑽
❑ Strain Relation: Relative volume change is related to the spatial derivative of displacement.
𝑽
❑ Bulk Modulus (B): Pressure fluctuation is proportional to the strain.

Let displacement, 𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕)

Pressure fluctuation is given by: 𝒑 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑩𝑲𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕)
This means that pressure and displacement waves are 90° out of phase in a sound wave.
Displacement is maximum when pressure fluctuation is zero, and vice versa.
Consider an Imaginary Cylinder in a Wave Medium
We consider an imaginary cylinder in a medium (gas, liquid, or solid) with Cross-sectional area (S),
Length (∆𝒙) (when there is no sound wave), Volume 𝐕 = 𝐒∆𝒙. When a sound wave is present, the
points at 𝒙 and 𝒙 + ∆𝒙 move due to wave propagation.
Displacement at x: 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 and Displacement at x+Δx: 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒚 𝒙 + ∆𝒙, 𝒕 The difference in
displacement at neighbouring points affects the volume of the cylinder.
Volume Change in the Cylinder
The volume change ∆𝑽 = 𝑺(𝒚𝟐 − 𝒚𝟏 ) ⇒ ∆𝑽 = 𝑺[𝒚 𝒙 + ∆𝒙, 𝒕 − 𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 ]
Volume change depends on the displacement difference between neighbouring points.
 Sound waves as pressure fluctuations
Relative Volume Change (Strain)
The relative volume change (bulk strain) is:
Δ𝑽 𝑺[𝒚 𝒙+∆𝒙,𝒕 −𝒚 𝒙,𝒕 ]
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦
𝑽 Δx→0 𝑺∆𝒙
Δ𝑽 𝝏𝒚(𝒙,𝒕)
​Since the cross-sectional area S cancels out: =
𝑽 𝝏𝒙
Fractional change in volume (strain) is directly related to the spatial derivative of the displacement
function.

Relationship Between Pressure and Strain

Pressure fluctuations in a medium are governed by the bulk modulus B, which is defined as:
𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 Δp
𝐁= = − Δ𝑽
𝑩𝒖𝒍𝒌 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑽
Δ𝑽
Bulk stress is the change in pressure Δp, and bulk strain is the relative volume change ​:
𝑽
Δ𝑽
Rearranging, Δp = −𝐁
𝑽
Δ𝑽 𝝏𝒚
Substituting, =
𝑽 𝝏𝒙
𝝏𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕)
p(x,t) = −𝐁
𝝏𝒙
​ This equation shows that the pressure fluctuation is proportional to the spatial derivative of
displacement.
 Sound waves as pressure fluctuations
Pressure in Terms of a Sinusoidal Wave
For a traveling sound wave, the displacement, 𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕)
𝝏𝒚(𝒙,𝒕)
Taking the spatial derivative: = −𝑨𝒌 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕)
𝝏𝒙
Substituting this into the pressure equation:
p 𝒙, 𝒕 = −𝐁 (−𝑨𝒌 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕) = 𝑩𝒌𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕)
𝝏𝒚(𝒙, 𝒕)
p 𝒙, 𝒕 = −𝐁
𝝏𝒙

Phase Relationship Between Displacement and Pressure

Displacement function:𝒚 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕)
Pressure fluctuation: p 𝒙, 𝒕 = 𝑩𝒌𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕)

Displacement is a cosine wave and the pressure fluctuation is a sine wave 90° Phase Shift. The
pressure is maximum when the displacement derivative is maximum, meaning that the displacement
and pressure waves are 90 degrees (π/2 radians) out of phase.

Interpretation of Pressure Changes

I. If 𝒚𝟐 > 𝒚𝟏 ​,(𝒙 + ∆𝒙 is greater than 𝒙) the volume increases → Pressure decreases.
II. If 𝒚𝟐 < 𝒚𝟏 , (𝒙 + ∆𝒙 is smaller than 𝒙), the volume decreases → Pressure increases.
III. If 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒚𝟏 , there is no volume change → No pressure fluctuation.
 Sound waves as pressure fluctuations

❑ The pressure fluctuation depends on the difference between displacements at

neighbouring points.
❑ The strain (change in volume) is proportional to the spatial derivative of
displacement.
❑ Pressure fluctuation is proportional to the strain via the bulk modulus.
❑ In a traveling wave:
I. Displacement follows a cosine function.
II. Pressure follows a sine function.
III. They are 90° out of phase.
Sound Intensity
Consider A sinusoidal wave form,

Particle velocity,

We know Pressure,

Therefore,

The intensity is the time average value of the power per unit area p(x, t)vy(x, t). For
any value of x the average value of the function sin2 (kx – t) over one period T =
2 is 1
So we can write,
 Substituting,

Replacing A in terms of

Replacing B in terms of
If the sound source emits waves in all directions equally, the intensity decreases
with increasing distance r from the source according to the inverse square Law :

The intensity is proportional to 1/r2.

The decibel scale

The chosen reference intensity I0 is

approximately the threshold of human hearing at
1000 Hz. Sound intensity levels are expressed in
decibels, abbreviated dB.

A decibel is 1/10 of a bel

Beats

The amplitude variation causes variations of loudness called beats, and the
frequency with which the loudness varies is called the beat frequency.
Let fa > fb the corresponding periods are Ta and Tb, hence Ta < Tb. If the two waves
start out in phase at time t = 0, they are again in phase when the first wave has
gone through exactly one more cycle than the second. This happens at a value of
t=Tbeat, the period of the beat.
Let n be the number of cycles of the first wave in time Tbeat; then the number of
cycles of the second wave in the same time is (n – 1), and we have the relationships

Eliminating n Therefore

Hence

therefore beat frequency is the difference of the two

frequencies
The Doppler Effect

When a source of sound and a listener are in motion

relative to each other, the frequency of the sound heard
by the listener is not the same as the source frequency
Moving Listener and stationary
source
Let’s think first about a listener L moving with velocity vL toward a stationary
source S. The source emits a sound wave with frequency fS and wavelength  = v/fS.
The figure shows four wave crests,
separated by equal distances  The
wave crests approaching the moving
listener have a speed of propagation
relative to the listener of (v + vL). So
the frequency fL with which the crests
arrive at the listener’s position (that
is, the frequency the listener hears) is

For a -
listener -
moving away
from source
A listener moving toward a source (vL > 0), hears a higher frequency (higher pitch) than does a stationary
listener.
A listener moving away from the source (vL < 0) hears a lower frequency (lower pitch)
Moving source and Moving
Listener
Now suppose the source is also moving, with velocity vS. The wave speed is v; But
the wavelength is no longer equal to v/fS because the time for emission of one cycle of
the wave is the period T = 1/fS and during this time, the wave travels a distance vT =
v/fS and the source moves a distance vST = vS/fS. The wavelength is the distance
between successive wave crests, and this is determined by the relative displacement
of source and wave.
frequency heard by the listener behind the source
THANK
YOU