Musical Theory Manual

Rönisch Musical Conservatory

Beginner
Sound and Noise
Sound is everything that reaches our ears, and is produced by:
SOMETHING THAT VIBRATES, called a sound body (which may or may not be a
musical instrument) SOMETHING THAT TRANSMITS IT, which may be air, and also
water or a solid medium.
AND SOMETHING THAT RECEIVES IT, which would be our ear.
The sound, then, is produced because some sound body vibrates, and the vibration it
produces generates waves in the air, which are those that reach the eardrum. This does not
mean that all sound bodies are musical instruments, which is why we could differentiate
two groups within sound:

1. Musical sound
2. Noise Why differentiate musical sound and noise, if they are all sounds?

MUSICAL SOUND: These are what musical instruments emit. What vibrates can be the
air in a wind instrument, a string in a string instrument, or a membrane in some percussion
instruments. These have a sinusoidal or sinusoidal waveform, without sudden changes.
They are certain sounds.

NOISE: These are all sounds that never have harmony, such as the engine of any vehicle.
The noise waveform is much more uneven and with more peaks than that of musical
sounds, as can also be seen in the graph. They are indeterminate sounds.

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Sound qualities (applied to musical instruments)

Height: is the tuning of the sound. That is, if it is acute, medium or serious. When a sound
is said to be high or low, it means that it is out of tune towards high or low, respectively,
with respect to another sound or instrument (in the event that there is more than one
musician).

Duration: it is the time during which said sound is maintained. The only acoustic
instruments that can maintain sounds for as long as they want are those with bowed strings,
like the violin for example, because they do not need to breathe or touch the string again.
The wind ones depend on lung capacity, and the percussion ones depend on the blows. The
guitar needs, like the piano, hammering to hit the strings, and the sound is only heard until
the string stops vibrating.

Intensity: it is the same as talking about volume: a sound can be weak or strong.

Timbre: timbre is the color of the sound, thanks to which we can differentiate instruments
from each other. The difference between two voices or two guitars also depends on the
timbre: one may sound sweeter than the other, or more metallic, or more opaque or bright.

Each sound can be analyzed in its four properties: whether it is high, medium or low
(height), how long it lasts (duration), whether it is weak or strong (intensity) and the type
of instrument that generates it (timbre).

Music
Music is the art of combining sounds successively and simultaneously, to transmit or
evoke feelings. It is a free art, where feelings are represented with sounds, under different
composition systems. Each composition system will determine a different style within the
music.

The fundamental elements of music are three:

Melody: melodies are what we sing or hum when we like a song. We cannot sing more
than one note at a time. The melody is the way of combining sounds, but successively.
Hence many instruments are called melodic, for example, a flute, a sax, a clarinet or any
wind instrument, because they cannot sound more than one note at a time.

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the time.

Harmony: using melodies alone, the songs would sound “empty”. In the long run we would
need something that acts as a base for us, and that gives us the feeling of being with other
musicians accompanying us. Harmony is the way of combining sounds simultaneously.
Each composer will use it to create different atmospheres. It can transmit states of
melancholy, sadness, or tension, to states of joy, calm, relaxation, etc. Instruments called
harmonics, such as the piano or guitar, are those that can play more than one note at a time.

Rhythm: when we are listening to music, it is very common for us to beat intuitively with
our foot or hand. We call each beat time or pulse, and they would be the units into which
the different rhythms are divided. Rhythm is the pulse or beat at constant, regular intervals.
There are fast rhythms, like rock and roll, or slow ones, like ballads, and we can basically
differentiate them between those that are binary, and those that are ternary, like the waltz.

Staff
It is the place where notes and all other musical signs are written.
It has five lines and four spaces, which are counted from bottom to top.

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Since we can only write nine notes between the lines and spaces of the staff, there are
additional lines and spaces to write above and below the staff.

Additional lines or auxiliary lines are signs that are used in musical notation to represent
the pitches corresponding to notes that, because they are very high or very low, do not fit
within the five lines and four spaces of the regular staff; and therefore, they must be
represented above or below it.

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Ascendingly, the sounds that go towards the high pitch are written, and those that go
towards the low pitch are written down. The use of additional lines and spaces is limited,
because reading becomes difficult when they exceed four or five lines above or below the
staff.

Musical notes
Twelve sounds are used in Western music. There are seven natural sounds and five altered
ones. Those are the notes. Once we reach the twelve sounds, we repeat them again in the
same order, throughout the register of each musical instrument. Each of these repetitions of
twelve sounds is called an octave.

Natural notes: DO – RE – MI – FA – SOL – LA – SI.

• 7 natural notes (white keys)

• 5 altered notes (black keys)

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As can be seen, on the keyboard, altered notes have two nomenclature possibilities. (F# is
also called G b). I

Musical Keys
The clef is a sign that is placed at the beginning of the staff and serves to indicate the name
and intonation of the notes. There are 7 keys, but the most common are G on the 2nd line
and F on the 4th line.

Treble clef in 2nd line

…………………………….

It tells us that the SOL note is on the 2nd line. It is the one that is used the most.

Clef of C in 1st line ……………………………

DO
In this case, it is the first line that houses the C note. It is used for bass instruments.

Clef of C in 2nd line ………………………….

DO
The note C will be placed on the second line of the staff.

Clef of C in 3rd line …………………………….

This key indicates that the C is the note of the 3rd line. It is used with instruments such as
the viola.

Clef of C in 4th line ……………………………..

DO
In this case, the C is on the 4th line.

I For fingering of musical notes on the violin, SEE ANNEX 1

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Bass clef in 3rd line ………………………………

The third line of the staff will contain an F.

Bass clef in 4th line ……………………………….

The note located on the 4th line of the staff is an F. It

is widely used for piano.

Let's see the arrangement of musical notes, in the clefs of FA and SOL.

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Figures and musical silences

A note can be written in 7 different ways, that is, with 7 different FIGURES. The figures
are signs that indicate the duration of the sounds. There are 7 and they are called:

Silences are signs that indicate the momentary absence of sound. There are 7, one for each
figure.

If we did not have an armed system that encodes the DURATION of each sound, it would
be impossible to reproduce a song as it was made by the composer. The same to be able to
play music from different countries, no matter what their language is. Hence music is the
universal language.
The figures are what determine the duration of the sounds, and the silences determine their
momentary pauses.

The following table shows the equivalence of musical figures.

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The line that is added from the half note is called stem, and the kind of hook that is added
to the stem from the eighth note is called bracket.

Sign to transpose notes an octave higher:

It is used to facilitate the reading of very high or low notes. It consists of an eight followed
by dotted lines, and means that those notes must be played eight notes higher, that is, an
octave.

It can also be placed below the staff.

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Alterations
Alterations are signs that modify the natural sound. The simple alterations are: the sharp,
raises the note a semitone, the flat lowers the note a semitone and the besquare, returns the
note to its natural state.

Any of the signs that represent alterations are written next to the notes (left side).

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Compass
They serve to organize the music. It is the division of music into parts of equal duration.

The division of music into parts of equal duration is indicated by dividing lines that cross
the staff perpendicularly.

Dividing lines or bars compass

A—A_
Eg--------------7--------------------7----- E।
Compass . % । Compass . %
Compass .

The set of note values or rests included between two dividing lines forms a compass. Each
measure contains the same sum of values.

The conclusion of a piece of music is indicated by two dividing lines or conclusion bars.

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NAME FUNCTION WRITING

It is used to segment measures throughout the

normal bar line score; They do not have any related additional
function.

It is used to divide fragments of music made

up of several measures. They can be used to
double bar line indicate the culmination of a melody, or the
passage from one musical theme to another,
among others.

•
They indicate that a musical segment, from the •
measure in which the repetition start bar is
written to the measure in which the repeat end Start
Repeat Barlines bar is written (including this one), must be
repeated as many times as indicated by the
music sheet. It is usually repeated only once. •
*
Final

End Barline It marks the end of a musical work.

They also indicate the repetition of a part, placing two points immediately after the
conclusion bars.

Point and its equivalents

The dot is a small point that is placed to the right of a figure or silence, and increases said
figure or silence by half its value.

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A dotted round is worth 3 whites.

A dotted white is worth 3 black.

A dotted quarter note is worth 3 eighth notes.

A dotted eighth note is worth 3 sixteenth notes.

A dotted sixteenth note is worth 3 lines.

A dotted fusa is worth 3 semifusas.

extension ligation
The ligature of value or extension is the curved line that we see joining two or more notes
of the same pitch (with the same location on the staff). Only the first note where the
ligature begins is played, and the value of the remaining ligatures is added.

It should be said that there are at least two joined together, but you can see more notes
affected by the ligature. On the other hand, in practice only the first note is played, and it
continues playing during the addition of the remaining notes.
Ligatures can exceed the measure, extending to the next (even one beyond). The ligature
value is renewed when it joins a note from the next measure.

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Calderón, corona or fermata

Calderón, also called corona (in Italian fermata), is a musical sign that indicates a pause; It
is drawn as a semicircle with a point in the center that is placed on the score above or
below the musical figure whose time duration you want to modify. The calderón indicates
to the performer that they can lengthen the duration of that note or silence. In general
terms, the duration of that sign is doubled, that is, if it is a quarter note it receives the value
of two quarter notes, if it is a white note, the value of two white notes and so on.

Compass Formula
The measure formula or indicator figure is two numbers written at the beginning of the
staff (a fraction without a bar), after the clef, and determines how many beats there are in a
measure (upper number), and which figure has the value of a time (lower number).

Time unit: it is the figure that is worth a beat within the measure.
Measure unit: it is the figure that adds all the beats of the measure.

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Measures are units of measurement that that

provide a basic rhythm made up of beats and for
accents. Pulse: every beat. Accent: the first the
beat. of
the

The bottom number (denominator) represents

a figure Starting from the round as
number 1, the following figures are numbered
depending on how many fit in the round. a

H bottom number (denominator)

e
represents a figure. Starting from the round
as number 1, the following figures are
numbered depending on how many fit into a
round.

Tempo
It refers to the speed with which a piece of music must be
played. It is an Italian word that literally means "time." In the
scores of a work, the tempo is usually represented at the
beginning of the piece above the staff.

The metronome is a device used to mark the tempo or speed in

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musical works. It regularly produces an acoustic and/or visual signal that allows the
musician to follow the beat of the beat exactly.

Preparatory
Simple Measures
Simple measures are measures of 2, 3 and 4 beats. Depending on the number of beats that
make them up, binary, ternary and quaternary measures emerge.

The measures will be SIMPLE or COMPOUND depending on the type of figure that is
worth a beat or pulse. If said figure does not have a dot, the measure is simple, and if said
figure has a dot, then the measure is compound.

How are the bars marked?

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Binary, ternary or quaternary DIVISION:

The division refers to the number of beats (beats) in a measure.

The NUMERATOR indicates the number of BEATS in the SINGLE measures:

• Numerator 2 = Two beats per measure (binary measure)

• Numerator 3 = Three beats per measure (ternary measure)
• Numerator 4 = Four beats per measure (quaternary measure)

How do we find out the FIGURE that is worth ONE PULSE? Checking the
DENOMINATOR. In SIMPLE measures, the denominator represents the figure that is
equivalent to a pulse. (For example: in the 2/4 time signature, the denominator “4”
represents the “quarter note”, the quarter note being the figure that is equivalent to a beat).

TABLE OF
DENOMINATORS
Compound Bars
Composite measures have a more complex structure; They are characterized by having 6, 9
or 12 as a numerator.

Composite measures are those that have a compound figure as a pulse unit, that is, with a
dot (a quarter note with a dot, a half note with a dot, an eighth note with a dot, etc.).

These measures are derived from simple measures; To transform a simple measure into a
compound one, multiply the numerator of the simple measure by three and the
denominator by two and add a dot to each figure of the simple measure.

The measure composed of numerator 6 is marked in two beats. The numerator 9 in three
times. The one with numerator 12 in 4 times.
Pulse i P3 Pulse l P2
Pulse 1 Pulse 2 P3
P2 1 1-------1 P4 1- 1
4 srrf yrrr -----1
f• fff =e. -

| | z 4— -— 789 -------
IT —= t 18
123 456
either
123
4— 4— 4— E
123 456 456 789 10 11 12

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Composite measures are used in more folkloric or ethnic musical genres such as
tarantellas, zambas, chacareras, chamamé, etc.

The beats of simple measures are binary, that is, divisible by 2, and the beats of compound
measures are ternary, that is, divisible by 3 and are represented by dotted figures.

The four-by-four meter is called compasillo and is generally indicated by the sign C, and
the two-by-two meter is called binary or simply binary and is also indicated by a sign.
Compasillo Binary
Compilation

Tone and Semitone

They are the basic distances between two notes in a row. The semitone is the shortest
distance, and is half a tone. The tone is equal to two semitones.

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Diatonic and chromatic scale The scale is divided into two types:

• diatonic scale
• chromatic scale

The diatonic scale is made up of diatonic tones and semitones.

The scale that combines 5 Tones and 2 semitones because the distance between their
sounds is different is called DIATONIC and is the scale that occupies the main structure of
Western music.

Natural

Harmonica

Melodic

The chromatic scale represents the ascending and descending succession of the 12 different
sounds, pitches or notes within an octave. It contains the twelve semitones of the Western
tempered scale.

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Diatonic and chromatic halftone

A semitone is each of the two parts into which an interval of one tone is divided.

Semitones can be of two types:

• Diatonic semitone: these are those semitones that have the name of the following
note.
• Chromatic semitone: these are those semitones that have the same name as the
note.

or it o#o=
diatonic chromatic

Strong and weak beats of the bars

The beats of a measure are accented with different intensities and are divided into:
• STRONG: more accentuated
• WEAK: less accentuated
• SEMI-STRONG: a little accentuated.

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RONISCH
MUSICAL
CONSERVATORY

Intervals
It is the distance between two sounds. The notes that comprise the intervals are called
degrees. The interval of two degrees is called second, that of three is called third, that of
four is called fourth…. And the eight octave. Simple intervals are those that reach the
octave and compound intervals are those that go beyond the octave. An interval is
ascending when its first note is lower than the second, and it is descending when its first
note is higher than the second.

To know what interval it is, we count from the note that begins to the note that ends, both
inclusive.

INTERVALS
When the two sounds are successive (one after the other), it is called a melodic interval.
When two sounds are played simultaneously (at the same time), it is known as .
harmonic interval.

Alterations
Musical alterations are changes in the pitch of sounds or musical notes, by raising or
lowering them. They are represented in the form of symbols according to the alteration.
Accidents on the staff are written on the left side of the musical note.

Double accidentals are the double sharp and the double flat increases or reduces the note
by two semitones instead of one as with the sharp and the flat.

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Solb
DoX =RE •

Re X The = SUN

Own and accidental alterations

The alterations are those that are placed at the beginning of a musical work and modify the
sound of the notes of the same name found in said work. To do this, the order of sharps and
flats is used, which cannot be changed.

Accidental alterations are those that modify the sound within a single measure, they
modify the sound of the notes found after said alteration.

Circle of Fifths

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The circle of fifths is a visual representation of the key signatures that The circle is divided
into sharps (right) and flats (left) that we find when moving through it.
you hear in music. It starts at the top, in C (C) Major.

It is called a circle of fifths because each key signature is separated from the next by a fifth
interval (for example: C to G on the circle is a fifth (or 7 semitones).

The circle of fifths allows us to easily know the notes of any major key, and therefore of
any major scale.

Ji
MAJOR ESUU
It is made up of eight notes and it takes seven intervals to go from the first to the last. It is important to note that for a sequence of notes to
be classified as a major scale, it has to have this same sequence of tones.
and semitones, no matter what note the sequence begins on.
semitone

For this reason, when we build major scales starting on notes other than C, it is necessary to use sharps or flats to maintain this pattern

of tones and semitones. TO

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Key Armor
The set of key, indication of accidentals and the time signature, is called key signature and
the accidentals are placed there.

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A key signature expresses the tone of a song by showing which notes have sharps or flats,
if any. It is written as a pattern of accidentals at the beginning of a staff, after the clef and
before the beat mark.

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key armor

When a work is in any key other than C major or A minor, it requires the regular use of
accidentals. To avoid having to write so many accidentals over the course of the piece, we
write all the accidentals at the beginning of the piece using what we know as key signature.

Signs of expression
Expression signs are used to specify the different ways of playing a note or a musical
phrase. They can be words, generally in Italian, or signs.
There are signs of expression that refer to the intensity of sounds or phrases: they are
called nuances. There are others that refer to the way they are executed: they are those that
form the dynamics or articulation of the execution. And there are others that indicate the
speed of the song or passage in which they are found: they are the speed indications and
the metronome.

34 SOLID INTENSITY a, ee ee e “8

PP
F

mp
w AE, e"4: -
Pianissimo
Piano

mezzo piano
Very soft
Gentle

medium soft
whisper
■ Intensity is another quality of sound by which we distinguish soft and loud
sounds.
• In music, the intensity of sound is called dynamics.
mf mezzo forte medium strong
• Sound intensity is also represented in music scores using dynamics
F Forte Strong signs. The names of these signs come from Italian. Each sign has its
Yo Fortissimo Very strong abbreviation, made up of one or two letters. TO
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Sometimes it is necessary to indicate a gradual increase or decrease in intensity. To do this,

the words crescendo or decrescendo or signs called sound regulators appear.

TERM SIGN ABBREVIATION MEANING

crescendo < crcsc.

Progressive increase in sound
intensity

diminuendo Progressive decrease in sound

dim.
> intensity

Crescendo Decrescendo

Signs of repetition
There are several, among them, the conclusion bar to which two points are added, between
the third line of the staff: if the points are on the left, what has been played must be
repeated; If they are on the right, the following must be repeated. There are also the 1st and
2nd boxes, the 1st is skipped when you do not want to repeat the piece and if it is repeated,
it is played the first time including the 1st box and when repeating, the 1st is skipped and
played the 2nd and continue.

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D.C. It means Da Capo (from the beginning to the end).

Dal Signo : repeat the sign until the end.

Irregular values
It is a group of figures that have more or less figures than what the compass calls for. The
most used irregular values are the triplet and the sixillot. The triplet is a group of 3 figures
that is equivalent to 2 of the same kind. The seisillo is a group of 6 figures that is
equivalent to 4 of the same kind. The triplet and sixillot can also be written with rests and
dots.

Tempo, movement or air

Tempo, movement or air in musical terminology refer to the speed at which a piece of
music should be played. It is an Italian word that literally means "time."

In the scores of a work, the tempo is usually represented at the beginning of the piece
above the staff.

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Tempo, Movement or Air

What is How does $e

it? indicate?

Italian terms
It is e| degree of speed
with which a musical work
is performed
Term Meaning

LONG
2—: Very slowly: Metronome
SLOW
Where is it indicated?
Yo
: ADAGIO Slowly
Mark the exact
At the beginning of the work
sical on the staff : ANDANTE : : speed
: MODERATO : Don't worry

i ALLEGRO Risolute. MJÍ Jg 80.

Fast
walking

PRESTO always fore and xtaccato

ALIVE Very fast

VIVACE

The metronome is a device that accurately marks the speed of execution of the piece. Originally they
were mechanical devices with pendulums, but later they became electronic.

It has a tempo oscillation that goes from 40 to 208 beats per minute.

In the case of sheet music, the metronome indication is above the first measure of the song,
and generally represents the speed of the figure, which would be the UNIT OF TIME.

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In this example, we should have a speed equivalent to 60 quarter notes per minute.

Major Chords
A chord is a set of notes that sound simultaneously.

Chords are made up of three notes (root, third and fifth) and are called triad chords.

The major perfect chord is made up of the fundamental sound, a major 3rd (4 semitones)
and a perfect 5th (7 semitones).

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1st
Intervals YEAR
An interval is the distance between two sounds. There are different types
of intervals.

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eos the notes are played

in succession

Intervals Intervals
Dissonant Consonants

Consonances
produce the feeling Unison, 4, 5°, 8
■perfect
of agitation and need
so resolve in conso-
finances.
2nd
, 7th , 4th augmented,
5th
Consonances 3“ Major and
diminished
Imperfect minor, 6“ Major
and minor

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Alterations
Musical alterations are changes in the pitch of sounds or musical notes, by raising or
lowering them. They are represented in the form of symbols according to the alteration.
Accidents on the staff are written on the left side of the musical note.
The double sharp and double flat increases or decreases the note by two semitones instead
of one as with the sharp and flat.

Major Scales
There are 15 major scales. One that has no alterations, which is C MAJOR, 7 scales with
sharps and 7 scales with flats.

The scale is a succession of joint sounds. The notes that make up a scale are called degrees.
The scale has eight degrees. Each grade has its name:

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1st grade TONIC

2nd SUPER TONIC
grade
degree THROUGH
4th
grade SUBDOMINANT
5th grade DOMINANT
6th
grade SUPER DOMINANT
7th grade SENSITIVE
8th
grade NOTE or TONIC
OCTAVE

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The degree that gives its name to the scale is the first or tonic.
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Chords
Chords are made up of 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 or more notes (sounds).

In addition to the Major triad, there are other types of triads:

Minors: formed by a minor 3rd and a perfect 5th.

Augmented: formed by a major 3rd and an augmented 5th.

Diminished: formed by a minor 3rd and a diminished 5th.

Chord Inversion
We say that a chord is in a fundamental state if its root is the lowest note. In a three-sound
chord or triad , we can also arrange the chord in first or second inversion.

A chord is in first inversion when its third is the lowest note.

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It is in second inversion when its fifth is the lowest note.

FundemenGel "° Investment 2 or Investment

American Cipher
The Anglo-Saxon musical notation system is a type of alphabetically based musical
notation.

Accentation of the measures

The beats of a measure are accented with different intensity and are divided into:

• Strong: more accentuated

• Weak: less accentuated
• Semi-strong: a little accentuated

Generally, when we follow a rhythm, we mark accents intuitively. Accents are the beats
that sound stronger than others.

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The first beat of all the measures is strong (accentuated pulse.

The other beats are weak (unstressed pulses).

Time 1 2 3 4

binary compass ■F d
■
Ternary compass *■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■*
:F d D"1
quaternary compass
;F d SF D

FDD FD SF D

Subdivision of the measures: The measures are subdivided to facilitate their reading in
slow movements. Simple measures are subdivided by marking each beat twice and
compound measures, three times each beat.

1 time 2 fractions

Rhythm
We can define Rhythm as the various ways in which a composer groups sounds and
silences, taking into account mainly their duration (long and short) and accents.

The most basic element of rhythm is the pulse, the pulse organizes time into equal parts
with the same duration and accentuation. The tempo of the music determines the speed of
the pulse.

Binary rhythm: Divides time into two equal parts, emphasizing the first more: One two /
One two / One two................................... The rhythm of these words coincides with what

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previous: Can – ta / To – ca / Bai – la, etc.

Ternary rhythm: Divides the time into two equal parts, emphasizing the first more: One
two / One two / One two............................ If you look closely, the rhythm of these words
coincides with the above: Can – ta / To – ca / Bai – la, etc.

Quaternary rhythm: Divide the time into four equal parts and accentuate the first one more
and the third a little: One two Three four / One two Three four /...

We can find rhythms that have more than four beats or parts, and it would be

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The result of combining the basic rhythms, for example, a five-part

rhythm could be the following: One two Three four five / One two
Three four five, combining a binary and a ternary rhythm.

Another interesting rhythmic effect is that of polyrhythm, which consists of the

interpretation of two or more different rhythms, simultaneously, that is, they sound at the
same time.

Transport
Transpose is to translate a piece of music to a key different from the one in which it is
written, in a higher or lower register.

This means that the distance relationship between the original notes and those obtained
during transportation must be maintained.

Transportation may need to be done for several reasons:

• So that a singer can sing the song in the key that corresponds to his register.
• To facilitate the execution of an instrument.

Written transport. Instead of doing it mentally, it is written. To do this, I have to follow the
following steps:
1. Write the transport code, which can be the same or the one that suits my needs.
2. Write the tone signature resulting from the transport.

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3. Write the notes according to the transportation interval. I can see that the notes
change now, something that did not happen in the read transport.
4. Modify the necessary accidental alterations, as I write.

To transport
this melody a
descending 2nd we must follow the following steps:
1. Determination of the original key (G Major)
2. Determination of the new key, putting the corresponding key signature (FA Major)
3. Copy all notes a low tone. As the key signature has been changed, all the proper
notes will remain one tone lower and we will have to be careful to modify any
accidental alterations that require it.

Transportation read. I have to change mentally:

1. The key.
2. The tone.
3. Some accidental alterations.

1 .- In this type of transport the position of the notes on the staff is preserved,
changing the key. To change the key, I have to look at the numerical interval of the
transport and apply it to the 1st note of the fragment that I am going to transport, to find
the key that gives that note the name that corresponds to it according to said interval
and its direction.

2 .- To change the key, I have to apply the transport interval with its tones and
semitones on the primitive key.

In transportation the modality does not change.

Example: ascending major 3rd.

G major (1#) =====> B major (5#)

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F minor (4 b) =====> A minor (0)

3 .- In transportation, some accidental alterations change. To do this, I have to see the

differences that occur in transportation.
Let's transport this fragment an ascending 3°:

Steps to follow:
1. Where we read “SI” we must read “RE”. To find the key that allows it, you can
think about the place that the “DO” note would occupy in the new key and be
guided by this graph where you can see the position of the “DO” note in all the
keys:

So, F in 4° will be the imagined key on the staff.

2. The new armor imagined will be SOL Mayor. When changing key signatures, the
diatonic notes are integrated into the new key without undergoing any
modification.
Mental realization:

Syncopation
It is a sound that is produced in the weak part of a measure or beat, and extends towards
the strong part of that measure or beat.

The prolongation of the sound of the weak beat on the strong beat can be produced by a
combination of figures or by a prolongation ligature.

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When we play syncopation, the attack is on the WEAK beat, which sounds accented,
causing the next one, which would be the STRONG beat, to not be heard because it is
linked. This makes it seem like we are turning or shifting the natural order of the accents in
the measure, which is initially difficult to achieve spontaneously when we read the first
syncopations.

But each time (whether strong or weak), has its strong and weak part when it is subdivided.
Therefore syncopation can occur within the strong and weak parts of each beat. This is
TIME SYNCOPA.

Setback
It is a sound that is produced in the weak part of a measure or beat, without extending into
the strong part. If there are silences on the strong beats and if only the weak beats of a
measure sound, we are facing a setback.

Do not confuse offbeat notes with anacrostic beginnings or anacrosic cells.

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Unison, Homonym and Enharmony

Unison: they are two equal notes, located at the same height. In reality, in this type of
interval there is no distance because it is the same note.

Homonym: they are two notes with the same name and different sound, that is, the second
note differs from the first because it has a different alteration.

Enharmony: they are two notes with a different name but the same sound.

Unison Namesake In harmony

—2 "V» X» -

(C ° 1 or
VA / o EITHER T

Ornaments or Musical Decorations

Ornaments are indicated by small notes or signs, which are placed before or after a main
note, from which they take the value they need.

The ornaments are intended to give variety to the composition.

The most common modern decorations or ornaments are: the support; the acciaccatura; the
group the mordent; the trill the tremolo; the glissando; the flourish; the arpeggio and the
cadenza.

Support

The appoggiatura is usually represented with a smaller, uncrossed-out eighth note before
the actual note.
It can be a note higher or lower than the actual note. If it is higher, it is located at a second
interval, while when it is lower, it is located at a diatonic semitone from the real note.

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When it is played, the accent falls on the appoggiatura and resolves to the weak beat.
Its duration depends on the real note it accompanies: if the real note is not dotted, the
appoggiatura eliminates the value it represents from the real note.

Mordents
The mordente (present participle of the Italian verb “morderé” (to bite)), are two notes that
are played very quickly, exactly like “biting” the note, they are represented with smaller
sixteenth notes or with specific graphic symbols.
Typically, after playing the actual note, you should play the note immediately higher or
lower by set degree and quickly play the actual note again.

When the real note alternates with the upper note in an ascending manner, it is called
“upper mordant”:

When the real note alternates with the lower note in a descending manner, it is called
“lower mordant”:

Groups
The grupetto (translation of the Italian term “gruppetto” meaning “small group”) is an
ornament that alternates the upper and lower note with the real note and is played in quick
succession. It is represented by means of smaller sixteenth notes or notes, or through
specific symbols.

There are different types of groups:

When the sign is placed directly above a note, the grace notes must be played before the
actual note. It can be lower or higher.

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In the upper group, the auxiliary notes are played starting from the note of the highest
degree, descending to the lowest degree to end at the actual note. In the lower group, the
auxiliary notes are played starting from the note of the lower degree, ascending to the
higher degree to end at the actual note.

Trill
It is the rapid and alternating repetition of a note with its main auxiliary. In the baroque the
trill begins on the upper auxiliary note. In later times it starts with the main note.

Trills can be interpreted with preparation or with resolution.

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Music Chronology
The history of music is the study of the EVOLUTION of different musical traditions over
time.
Throughout the history of humanity, all known cultures have had some form of musical
manifestation (musical tradition), so we consider that the “history of music” includes all
cultures and societies that human beings have had. human in its evolution.

Old music
Song and dance were born with man, before writing, from the cavemen to the first
civilizations.

The ancient period in music ends when the Middle Ages begins.

Medieval Music
This is the music of the Middle Ages. From the fall of the Roman Empire to the mid-15th
century and religious music.

Renaissance
The arts are reborn. From 1450 to 1600.

Famous composers:
• Clement Jannequin
• Giovanni Gabrieli
• Tomas Luis de Victoria

Baroque
From 1600 to 1750. A period of great development of vocal and instrumental art.

Famous composers:
• Johann Christoph Bach (1642-1703)
-guvanI
• Johann Pachelbel (1653-1706)
2
• Arcangelo Corelli (1653-1713)
(23
• Henry Purcell (1659-1695)
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• Johann Ludwig Bach (1677-1731)
• Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741)

3
• Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)
wlMA, .4=55
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• Georg Friedrich Händel (1685-1759)

• George Telemann (1681-1767)
• Jean Philippe Rameau (1683-1764)
• Francois Couperin (1668-1733)
• Tomaso Albinoni (1671-1751)
• Marc Antonie Charpentier (1643-1704)

Classicism
Between 1750 and 1820.

Famous composers:
• Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791)
• Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)
• Maria Anna Mozart (1751-1829)
• Leopold Mozart (1719-1787)
• Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827)
• Friedrich Kuhlau (1786-1832)
• Muzio Clementi (1752-1832)
• Niccolo Paganini (1782-1840)
• Franz Schubert (1797-1828)
• Gioachino Rossini (1792-1868)
• Anton Diabelli (1781-1858)
• Theodore Latour (1766-1837)

Romanticism
Until 1874, it is the perfection of Classicism.

Famous composers:
• Hector Berlioz (1803-1869)
• Johann Strauss I (1804-1849)
• Johann Friedrich Franz Burgmüller (1806-1874)
• Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847)
• Frederic Chopin (1810-1849)
• Robert Schumann (1810-1856)
• Franz Liszt (1811-1886)
• Richard Wagner (1813-1883)
• Stephen Heller (1813-1888)

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• Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901)

• Johann Strauss II (1825-1899)
• Johannes Brahms (1833-1897)
• Camille Saint-Saens (1835-1921)
• Georges Bizet (1838-1875)
• Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893)
• Antonín Dvorak (1841-1904)
• Edward Elgar (1857-1934)
• Claude Debussy (1862-1918)
• Manuel de Falla (1876-1946)
• Edvard Grieg (1843-1907)
• Jacques Offenbach (1819-1880)

contemporary
End of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century.

Famous composers:
• Béla Bartok (1881-1945)
• Edward Elgar (1857-1934)
• George Gershwin (1898-1937)
• Aram Khachaturian (1903-1978)
• Carl Orff (1895-1982)
• Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953)
• Giocomo Puccini (1858-1924)
• Maurice Ravel (1875-1937)
• Erik Satie (1866-1925)
• Jean Sibelius (1865-1957)
• Richard Strauss (1864-1949)
• Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971)
• Dmitri Kabalevsky (1904-1987)

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J Ockeghem N Pagan ini Vaughar Wilisims

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1500 1700 1800 1900 2000

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Middle Ages

Renaissance

Gregorian music 8th century

- Guido d Arezzo (s. x)
Religious music, we find
Troubadours and greater use of instruments
troubadours ments, multiple lines
The use of more tones arises
melodic and the use of
complex, instead of the modal
first gra- instruments
ity and counterpoint, popular
you see or low.
the keyboard instruments play
Composers: Josquim- C (harpsichord and organ)
Des Pres, Palestrina.
Composers; Vivaldi, Bach,
Purcell, Handel, Rameau, Monli
and Lully.

Between 1750 to
1820

Classicism

Typically used to describe bir the

wide variety of subge neros after
the "Romanticis mo employees period in which the
until the year 2000. "It practice, the role of
represented a crisis in the va music in cultural life and It was an important era that was-
lords of classical music. they created institutions to (in- established several of the rules of
teaching, execution and composition and structure.
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conservation
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tion of musical works.
■Ro lling, Queen Composers; Chopin, Liszt, Beethoven, Salieri
Schubert, Brahms, Tchaikovsky,
Rossini, Wagner

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2ND YEAR
Musical Forms
When in music we talk about “musical forms” or simply “form”, we are referring to a
specific type of musical work. In this sense, a Sonata would be one form and a Symphony
a different one, to give some examples.
In some way, when referring to form, we refer to the musical structure of a work, although
these two concepts should not be confused: form and structure. The form is more than a
simple musical structure: it is the ideal vehicle that the composer chooses to transmit
everything he wants to express.
A basic division of musical forms can be:
Simple forms: they are brief or consist of a single movement (nocturne, rondo).
Complex forms: they are extensive and consist of several movements (Symphony, sonatas,
concertos, Suites, Oratorios, Operas, etc.)
Instrumental forms: only musical instruments intervene in them.
Vocal forms: the human voice intervenes in them.
Mixed forms: that are or have been both vocal and instrumental.
Free forms: if they do not have a defined structure.

Ballad, nocturne, caprice or Waltz:

They are the freest forms that can be found. The Ballad is a narration of some popular
matter with an epic and lyrical character. When it is a vocal work it has this title because of
its poetic text. If it is instrumental, the composer would choose it as an allusion to the style
of his music. The nocturnes are of a serene contemplative abandon. His main supporter is
Chopin.

Concert:
It's like the sonata, but with an orchestra and conductor. The concerts usually prefer to use
only three movements, dispensing with the scherzo in such a way that their structure would
be Allegro-Adagio-Rondo. He still prefers sonata form for the first movement. Its
differential characteristics are that its writing is

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directed to a solo instrument and a symphony orchestra.

Drain:
It is a single theme, which is imitated and developed by other voices, as if they were
people singing who respond to each other.
Advice : to avoid getting dizzy between so many notes together, always keep each voice in
mind in a fugue. And don't forget the topic, which returns from time to time. Highlight it
firmly, every time it reappears.

Prelude:
It's a short piece. In general it does not present more than one theme, sometimes with a
single rhythmic, melodic and/or harmonic design. In the past it was used as an
introduction, preparation for something else. Over time, it became independent and took on
its own identity.
Advice : Play it without hesitation. It's a single unit from start to finish!

Suite room:
Independent set of pieces, of different character and rhythm. In the past they were popular
dances.
Advice : Make it cool when you play, because, although they are no longer danced, they
were hits centuries ago.

Sonata:
Originally a single movement. In classicism (Beethoven – Mozart) it had up to 3 or 4
movements (that is, parts):
• Moved time
• Slow time
• Minuet or Sherzando (dance)
• Fast or Rondo

Tip: BEWARE! Don't lose focus. Although there are three movements, the sonata is one
and only one thought.

Variations:
They are pieces that arise from rhythmic, melodic and/or harmonic modifications of a main
theme, often in the same key.
Tip : Although sometimes it suddenly escapes your mind, the topic is never

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absent.

Symphony:
The symphony actually has many similarities with the sonata. It uses sonata form for its
first movement and develops the rest of the movements in the line of the sonata, Allegro-
Adagio-Scherzo-Rondo.
The fundamental difference is that the symphony is written for an orchestra, which is why
it belongs to the symphonic genre.

March:
Although it is not a dance, it has a clear connotation in terms of regulating the pace of
several people. Written in binary time signature. There are a good number of variants such
as funeral march, military march, wedding march, pasodoble march.

Polonaise:
Of Polish origin, it is written in ¾ and is moderate in character. Its origins were inspired by
the parades of the Polish nobility. It has very repetitive rhythmic characters.

Mazurka:
Polish origin in ternary and animated rhythm. It usually features the dotted eighth note and
sixteenth note design.

Tarantella:
Neapolitan dance in 6/8 or 3/8 time signature. Its movement is alive.

Tocatta:
Its etymological origin suggests that it is a piece to be played on a key instrument. In its
old style it belonged to the group of compositions of an improvised nature, or at least far
from rigidity in the rules as well as fantasy or whim.

Imprint:
New type of free composition like fantasy but with a higher concept

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modern. It has its splendor in romanticism with Schubert and Chopin.

Barcarole:
With rhythmic characteristics similar to the Berceuse. The title refers to the swinging of a
gondola.

Rhapsody:

Of free and diverse themes without relation to each other, freely linked without any rule
except that of presenting, arranging and developing them.

Evolution of musical forms

Intervals - Characteristics

Musical intervals are a concept in music theory. They are one of the qualities of music that
contribute the most to the construction of melodies and harmonies; Below, we describe its
characteristics:

• They are distances between two musical notes.

• Its units of measurement are tone and semitones.
• Two semitones make a tone, as long as one of them is

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chromatic and the other diatonic.

• From the intervals, melodies are constructed when their notes are executed
melodically (successive) and harmonies when their notes are executed
harmonically (simultaneous).
• The most important qualities of intervals are their classification, rating, and
composition. From these three qualities, the intervals adopt their name.
• Major chords are formed by combining two thirds: a major and a minor, or vice
versa.
• Intervals distinguish the sound of a scale between each of its notes.
• They are one of the elements that make up the scale.

Intervals – What are they for?

There are many sounds that provide nuances to music; The musical intervals, successive
and/or simultaneous, allow these sounds to be created and combined to generate wonderful
results. The main function of intervals is to indicate the distance measured in tones and
semitones between two musical notes. In addition, they contribute many other qualities to
the music:

• Melodies can be generated from successive intervals.

• It is possible to create chords, combining simultaneous intervals.
• They define the mode of a chord according to the type of interval.
• They distinguish the sound of a scale.

According to the composition of the interval in tones and semitones, they can be classified
into 5 types: Just, Major, minor, augmented and diminished.

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COMPOSITION OF INTERVALS
The interval formed between the first degree of a key
any and all of the remaining sounds in its scale is always greater or
fair

2nd Major 3 or Major 4 or Just 5th Just 6 or Major 7 or Major 8 or Just

The composition of an interval is given by the number of tones, diatonic semitones and semitones
chromatics it contains.

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Intervals and harmony

Intervals are the basis of all harmony. By combining intervals and using them in various
ways it is possible to generate chords, which are the harmonic basis for any melody.

Basically, chords are combinations of three or more simultaneous notes. To generate a

chord it is necessary that the notes that make them up are separated by specific distances,
which is why we refer to intervals in chords.

The main chords (the best known) are built from two thirds. If the first is major and the
second is minor, the chord is major. If the first is minor and the second is major, the chord
is minor. In the following image you can see an example of the chords of the C major
scale. Notice that its composition is always two superimposed thirds.

minor scales
Like the major scale, the minor scale has 7 notes. However, there are three varieties:
natural minor, harmonic minor and melodic minor. The difference between these three
types of scale is the alteration of degrees VI and VII.
Natural or Ancient Minor Scale:
In the natural minor scale, all notes appear with the same alterations of their relative major.
Hence the name natural:

In the natural minor scale the semitones are between degrees II-III and V-VI.

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Scale structure: T-ST-TT-ST-TT

Harmonic Minor Scale:

They have their semitones from the 2nd to the 3rd degree, from the 5th to the 6th degree,
and from the 7th to the 8th degree, both when ascending and descending. Has ascending
alteration in the 7th degree.

Scale structure: T-ST-TT-ST-T and 1/2-ST

The name is due to the fact that one of the reasons for the alteration of the VII degree is
harmonic in nature. Altering this note allows the formation of the dominant or 7th chord.
dominant on the V degree of the scale.
Melodic Minor Scale:
It has altered the 6th and 7th degrees with ascending alteration, when ascending and
descending, they return to their natural key state.
The main purpose of this alteration is to facilitate the melodic movement from the VI to
the VII degree, avoiding the 2nd. augmented that is formed in the harmonic minor scale.
For this reason it is called melodica:

I II III IV V VI VII

Bachian Minor Scale:

It goes up like the melodic scale, but unlike it, it goes down in the same way.

Scale
structure: T-
ST-TTTT-ST

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Relative scales
They are two scales, one major and one minor, that have the same quantity and quality of
alterations. To find a relative minor of a major scale, you descend from the tonic of the
Major scale two degrees (from D major to B minor) and vice versa if you want to find a
relative Major of a minor.

The C major and A natural minor scales have the same notes. We say that they are relative
scales. C is relative major of la and la is relative minor of c:

To find out the relative minor of a major scale, just look for its VI degree. For example, the
relative minor of F major is its VI degree D.

In the case of relative majors, we look for the III degree. For example, the relative major of
C minor is its III degree Eb.

Enharmonic scales
They are two scales that have the same sound and different names. His alterations add up
to 12. (D flat Major and C# Major) (G flat Major and F# Major) (C flat Major and B
Major).

Enharmonic scales are those with 5, 6 and 7 alterations.

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Homonymous Scales
They are two scales that have the same name, but different sound. His alterations add up to
7. (e.g. C Major and C flat Major)

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Chromatic Scale
It is the scale made up of semitones, 7 diatonic and 5 chromatic.

Precautionary alterations
They are those that, although unnecessary, are indicated so as not to confuse your reading. They are
generally placed in parentheses.

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Triple point
Adds half the value of the second point:

°=.
.=NSNNNNSNS)NSNNB J...=
NNB)NBNBNNBNNBN) A. =)))))
Measures Reduction
The measures of two and three beats are marked in one. The four-beat measure is marked in two. The
measures are reduced in fast movements.

Movement or air
It is the degree of speed or slowness given to a piece of music. The main movements are:

7•

Presto Quick Walking Adage Long

Very fast Allegro Half Slowly Very slow

Accelerating (acc.} ( Rit burning (ritj (slower

getting faster ) and slower )

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Term Meaning
It is the slowest of all movements
Long

Longetto Less slow than Long

slow movements
Slow Slow
Serious Slow
Adage Less slow than Slow
Walking Moderate
Moderate
Andantino Less moderate than Andante
movements
Allegretto Less lively than Allegro
Allegro Animated
Presto Fast
Fast movements
Very fast. It is the most alive of all
Prestissimo
movements.

There are many derivations of these, but the ones indicated are the basic ones. The
movement is indicated by means of Italian terms, which are placed at the beginning of the
musical piece, above the staff.

Sound Articulations
They are signs that indicate the different ways of producing sounds. The
The main ones are: ligado and staccato.

Staccato or chopped shortens the duration of each note

legato or ligado all the notes are played together

Portato the note is highlighted by relying on it

Accentuated the note that has the accent stands out

There are several ways to indicate accents. In the last measure of the example there are two
types: the first sign is the most used, and the second is a more marked accent

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and dry than the previous one.

The ligature is similar to the ligature of value, but in this case it is called a ligature of
expression, and it can contain notes of different sounds and pitches.
Dynamic signs can also be combined with each other to highlight a specific touch.

The ligature is performed in string instruments by means of a single marking, in singing

and wind instruments by a single aspiration, and in keyboard instruments, by raising one
key at the precise moment in which the other is lowered.

Staccato is produced by removing half of the written duration from the notes, and is
indicated by the word staccato or by round dots (picado).
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RONISCH
MUSICAL
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3rd YEAR
Ancient figures and their silences
In ancient music, figures of longer duration than the round one were used, called: maxima,
Longa and Cuadrada.
The Máxima is worth 2 canvases or 4 square and 8 round.
La Longa is worth 2 squares or 4 rounds.
The square one is worth 2 round ones.

ANCIENT FIGURES

LONG

Quartefusa or scribble
This is the name of the figure with five crochets. It lasts one hundred and twenty-eighth
part of the round. The quartifuse is found in the works of ancient authors, but is rarely used
today.

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Modulation
Modular is going from one tone to another. It modulates to neighboring tones and distant
tones.

Neighboring keys are those that have the key set in the same way and those that differ by a
single alteration in the key.

Far tones are those that differ by two or more alterations in the key.

To find the neighboring tones, one must look for the ascending 5th and descending 5th of
the primitive tone.

When this change is momentary it is called “flexion” or temporary modulation. If the step
is consolidated, the modulation is considered final.

The most common modulations are those that are made to a neighboring or nearby key.
There are several ways to find nearby shades.

In the case of a major key, looking for the degrees of subdominant and dominant, their
relative minors and the relative minor of the main key.

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Another way is to look for adjacent keys on the circle

of fifths.

Modulation examples:

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Cadences
As in spoken language, music needs to breathe, create pauses, ellipses and questions. That is why the
most important resource on which Western music is based are those known as Cadences; punctuation
marks within musical discourse. With cadences we can create the effect of an end or conclusion, a
pause or breath and even an exclamation or surprise and all this playing with the harmonic effects of
tension and relaxation.
We realize the end of a piece of music, when it concludes in a chord that generates a feeling of rest.
When one chord “falls” on another, that fall is called a cadence.

Cadences are actually chord links. Each chord has a particular function within the cadences and
generates different sensations. Cadences are essential in tonal music to be able to delimit the phrases,
parts and sections in a piece of music.

Cadence in music is a series of chords or melody formula that usually coincides with the end of
a section in a work. A cadence is a harmonic and formal function characterized by a chord
progression that usually leads to the tonic chord or base chord.
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Cadences are, basically, a

rhythmic process. To
produce a rest you just
have to... rest!, that is,
lengthen a note, or write a
silence, so that the musical
discourse rests at that
point.

Expression prompts
Music is much more than simply playing the notes of a score mechanically. It is a language that allows
us to communicate with the public and transmit different emotions.

Indications of tempo, dynamics and character are some of the tools

that we have to achieve that objective of simply transcending

the notes.

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human voices
The voice is not the same for all people, so it cannot participate with the same qualities.
The voice is one of the human expressions where the characteristics of the individual are
most evident, encompassing both constitutional, anatomical and emotional characteristics.

The size of the vocal folds varies with a person's sex, height, amount of body mass, and age. In adult
men, their length ranges between 17.5 and 25 mm; and in adult women, these range between 12 and

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17.5mm in length.

The respiratory muscles of the thoracic cage participate in the sound emission of the voice,
with the lungs as air suppliers. the vocal cords in the larynx, as generators of vibration. the
cavities, among others, of the forehead, nose, mouth, trachea and lungs such as
resonators.

Musical instruments
There are many alternative divisions and subdivisions of instruments. Generally, when
studying musical instruments it is common to find the classic division of instruments into
four families: wind, string, percussion and electric instruments (created by man
approximately 50 years ago).

Classic or Traditional Classification

• Wind: Wind instruments generate a sound when a column of air is vibrated within
them. The frequency of the generated wave is related to the length of the air
column and the shape of the instrument, while the tone quality of the generated
sound is affected by the construction of the instrument and the method of tone
production.

• String: Stringed instruments generate a sound when the string is plucked. The
frequency of the wave generated (and thus the note produced) generally depends
on the length of the vibrating portion of the string, the tension of each string, and
the point at which the string is

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touched; The quality of the tone varies depending on how the resonance cavity has
been constructed.

• Percussion: Percussion instruments create sound, with or without tuning, when

they are struck, shaken or rubbed. The shape and material of the part of the
instrument that is struck and the shape of the resonating cavity, if any, determine
the sound of the instrument.
Some musicologists, to alleviate the shortcomings it suffers from, add the following
categories to the traditional classification.
INSTRUMENT FAMILIES

Three families l, |
• Voice: The human voice is an instrument
WIND ] in itself. A singer generates sounds when
PERCUSSIO
[ROPE
the flow ] from his lungs vibrates his vocal cords. The frequency
of air
N
is controlled
F
by the Depending
tension on the of the vocal folds and the quality of the tone by Two
According to the
thetypesshape of the
way you play them embouchure
vocal tract. The voice allows
PERCUTED^ (PULSED) pinched or
us to generate a wide range of sounds.
(RUBBE pinched
(UNDETERMINED
D DETERMINED
•
It is
Keyboards: Keyboard instruments
[ WOOD
are | METAL
wind (organ), string (clavichord),
It is pressed GIV
rubbed Does
with apercussion (piano)
with
or electronic (synthesizer) instrumentsnotthatgive are playedESusing a
(FINGERS or (SOUND HEIGHT ) (SOUND HEIGHT )
BOW keyboard, PICK so that each key generates one or more sounds. Many keyboard
has

Yo instruments
Piano have other means Clue (pedals in the case of thecanpiano,
be of stops incanthe case of
be of
Ex.
. Yo the TONGUE or
REED
NOZZLE
(metal)
WOOD, METAL OR WOOD, METAL OR
Fiddle Harp Guitar
Bandurria PATCH PATCH
Viola Cello
Double Bass Lute
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French Horn O'Elckers
Chinese Box (m) Xylophone (m)
Saxophone Trumpet Claves (m) Metallophone (met)
Oboe (d) Trombone Triangle (met) Carillon (met)
Bassoon Tuba Crótalos (met) Timpani (p)
(d) Flute Euphonium Tambourine (p)
Bongos (p)
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organ) to alter those sounds.

• Electronic: Electronic instruments generate sound through electronic means. They

generally imitate other instruments in their design, especially keyboard
instruments.

In 1914, musicologists Erich M. Von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs devised a much more
logical classification that sought to encompass all existing instruments. This classification
is much more precise, since it takes into account the acoustic principles that make different
instruments sound.

Thus, five large classes of musical instruments are established, which in turn are divided
into groups and subgroups:

• Aerophones: Aerophone instruments are also known and designated as a wind

instrument that belongs to the family of musical instruments as they are
characterized by a sound through the vibrations of the air column found inside.
Without the intervention of strings or membranes inside it, it can vibrate on its
own, only requiring the use of the wind so that it can be interpreted properly and is
called a wind instrument.

Wind instruments can be classified into two categories. These categories are divided
according to how the ringing is produced:
1. Metal instruments. The ringing is usually loud, bright and metallic. The sound in these
instruments is produced by the vibration of the lips in a cup-shaped metal mouthpiece,
which produces the acoustic frequency.
2. Wooden instruments. The timbre of these instruments is softer and more melodious
than that of brass. The sound is produced by blowing on a hole (bevel mouthpiece) or
by vibrating a double or single reed reed.

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Chordophones: the sound is produced by one or more tensioned strings. They are usually
subdivided into four categories according to the mode of excitation: plucked with the
fingers or with the help of a plectrum (harps, guitars, bandurrias, lutes, vihuelas, psalteries,
harpsichords), bowed with a bow (violins, etc.), or hit with hammers (pianos, tympani...)

Physical characteristics of the ropes:

• The longer the length of a string, the lower its sound.
• The thicker the string, the lower its sound.
• The tighter a string is, the higher its sound.

Taking into account these characteristics and to obtain more or less low or high sound
ranges, the instruments are built with different sizes. Additionally, each instrument has a
set of strings with different lengths, thicknesses and tensions.

Stringed instruments can be classified into three categories.

1. Rubbed rope. They are those that produce sound vibrations through the rubbing of
the strings, for this the BOW is used, which is a wooden rod at the ends of which a
wick of very fine threads (nylon, formerly horsehair) is set, whose strain

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can be regulated. These threads are coated with a special resin so that
they can rub the strings well. Ex. Violins, Viola, Violoncello and
Double Bass.
2. Plucked. The timbre of these instruments is produced by plucking the fingers (the
guitar, charango, ukulele), with the plectrum (the lute).
3. String struck or percussed. The sound is produced by some mechanical system (the
harpsichord), striking them as it happens on the piano. Of all the instruments in this
group, the piano has been the one that has imposed itself in our culture.
Percussion: Of all the instrument groups that we have studied, percussion is the one with

the greatest number of instruments and the one with the greatest diversity among them.

General characteristics of percussion:

• The larger the size, the deeper the sound it produces.
• The tone of the instrument depends on the material it is made of (metal, wood,
plastic, etc.).
• The timbre also depends on the type of striker used: wood sticks

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drum, hard or soft drumsticks, hammers, brushes, etc.

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Some percussion instruments are capable of producing sounds of the musical scale and we
can play melodies with them. We call them percussion instruments with a specific sound.
Others do not produce musical notes and you can only make rhythms with them. They are
the most numerous and we call them percussion instruments of indeterminate sound.
In addition to taking this characteristic into account, we can classify percussion instruments
into two groups: MEMBRANOPHONES and IDIOPHONES.

MEMBRANOPHONES: Membranophone instruments are those that produce sound by the vibration
of a tense membrane. The higher the membrane tension, the higher the sound.
The body of the instrument can have various shapes and sizes, and the membrane can be
made of different materials (leather, plastic, paper, etc.).

IDIOPHONES: The word idiophone, of Greek origin, means "own sound." Idiophone
instruments are, therefore, those in which the
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Sound is produced by the body of the instrument itself. The entire body vibrates.
They are classified taking into account the way in which sound vibrations are produced:
percussion, clashing, shaking or scraping.

The orchestra
The word orchestra comes from Greek and means "place to dance." This definition dates
back to around the 5th century BC. C. when the performances took place in open-air
theaters. In front of the main performance area was a space for singers, dancers and
instruments. This space was called orchestra.

Today, orchestra refers to a set of musical instruments and the musicians who play or
perform them.
There are different types of orchestra: string orchestra, chamber orchestra, symphony
orchestra...

The chamber orchestra:

The chamber orchestra does not have a specific formation of instruments. This term covers
all types of instrumental ensembles as long as the number of instrumentalists is small.
As with chamber music, the complement of "chamber" refers to the room or chamber in
which the musicians played (originally the music rooms of the palaces and large residences
of the 17th century). Since then it has meant "small orchestra that fits in a room."

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RONISCH
MUSICAL
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The Symphony Orchestra:

The symphony orchestra is a large instrumental group that brings together instruments
from the three families.
A symphony or philharmonic orchestra generally has more than eighty musicians on its
roster, only in some cases it has more than one hundred, but the number of musicians
employed in a particular performance may vary depending on the work to be played, and
the size of the place where the presentation will occur.

Each section of the orchestra has a certain placement that

It depends on the sound power of the instruments.

The composition of the orchestra has changed from the Baroque to the present, adding
more instruments and varying their position on stage.

Currently the following instruments are part of the orchestra:

• Strings: violin, viola, cello, double bass, harp and piano.
• Woodwind: piccolo, flute, oboe, English horn, clarinet, bassoon and contrabassoon.
• Wind-brass: Horns, trumpets, trombones, and tubas.
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• Percussion: This section does not have fixed instruments, only those necessary for
the work to be performed intervene. The most common are: timpani, bass drum,
snare drum, marimba, cymbals, gong...

Of these instruments, there are many that are the heart of the orchestra and are never given
up, and others that are auxiliary and do not always appear in the orchestra, despite being
part of the standard model. For example, violins are essential but the piano is not always
available. All of this depends on the work that is going to be performed. In the same way,
"guest instruments" often intervene, such as the lute, the guitar, etc., also due to the needs
of the work.

The conductor of the orchestra:

The conductor plays a key role in the symphony orchestra. It is a person who not only
keeps the time of the piece and gives the input of the instruments so that the interpretation
is coherent, but must interpret the score according to the "global" concept, staying faithful
to the original spirit of the work, but giving a personal vision. To achieve this, you must
know in depth the life and work of the composers.

The conductor does not appear in the orchestra until the 19th century, when the standards
of the symphony orchestra were really established, and it emerged almost for aesthetic
reasons.

He is in charge of conducting the

An orchestra conductor directs, unifies, rehearses,
music played by an orchestra.
guides, interprets, takes responsibility, leads and
expresses the music of the orchestra. But what are
your instruments to do it? Well, his own body and
It unifies the interpretation of the the baton.
work performed by the orchestra.
To achieve this, you must know It is a question of each person's physical
in depth the life and work of the expressiveness and what they want, seek or
composers. know how to convey with their movements and
their looks, and even with their entire body, and
He is the authority figure, that is, the one not only for the musicians, but also for the
who must coordinate the entire audience.
Its task consists above all of creating the
orchestra.
coordination of the musicians among themselves,
indicating the time, their different inputs, the
He is in charge, just as a stage director
dynamics (that is, the ability to play softer or louder),
of a play , is in charge of organizing
etc.
and planning the rehearsals. And, in
the same way, he is the one who Among the first famous conductors we find Louis Spohr,
chooses the repertoire and the order in Carl Maria von Weber and Felix Mendelssohn, Hector
which it will be played. Berlioz and Richard Wagner were also great conductors,
who were also the first to write essays dedicated to
conducting.

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Before, it was the first violin (concertino) or the person responsible for the keyboard who
directed, and currently they are in charge of tuning the ensemble. The soloist in the works
stands next to the director.

Some directors make use of a small stick called a baton. It is a short and thin rod with
which directors assist themselves in their task. In the past, the baton was more voluminous
than it is now.

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4TH YEAR
pentatonic scale
The pentatonic scale is made up of 5 sounds. They can be built on
any mode or scale and can use various combinations of notes. Basically, of the seven notes
that make up a scale, two must be deleted, as long as the tonic is included, no degree is left
isolated (e.g. Do-Mi-G-La-Si, where the E is, they are have the RE nor the FA as joint
degrees) and do not omit two consecutive degrees (e.g. Do-Re-Sol-La-Si, in
where MI and Fa are omitted).

There is a major and a minor pentatonic scale, which

are the most used. The major pentatonic is formed
using the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 5th and 6th degrees of the base
major scale.

The minor pentatonic scale uses the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 7th degrees of the natural minor
scale. It has the same notes as the major pentatonic, it just has to start on the tonic of the
minor scale.

We find pentatonic scales in the most varied styles of music ranging from Chinese popular
pieces to Scottish folklore through the entire history of rock and roll. In oriental music
these scales have played an important role for centuries.

In any case, we can find pentatonic scales in passages of the music of Maurice Ravel or
Claude Debussy, in solos by Jimi Hendrix, in phrases by Jaco Pastorius and in most Heavy
Metal solos.

The Greek ways

There is always talk that something must be transmitted, that music must excite.

We know that major chords tend to sound happy, while

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sad minor chords. This influences and is transmitted in the construction of the modes.
Thus, we must remember that some modes are major and others minor and are generally
associated with certain emotions:

• The Dorian, Phrygian and Aeolian modes are minor modes so they have a sad or
melancholic tone.
• The Ionian, Lydian, and Mixolydian modes are older, so they tend to sound with a
happy tone.

Of course, this does not mean that the song will be sad or happy according to this or that
mode, but that it has a nuance, since each mode transmits us a very particular air, climate
and atmosphere and this can also vary according to how the different musical elements are
mixed.

The important thing is to begin to understand the Greek modes not simply as a scale but as
emotions and sensations.

: Major Scale
Yo IONIAN
3
■ minor mode
; DORIC
Yo
: PHRYGIAN ■ minor mode :
■ Major Mode
; LYDIUS
■
■ Major Mode
; MIXOLIDIAN
■
Yo WIND : Natural minor scale :

: LOCRIO ■ minor mode :

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Ionian Mode (I): The first of the modes, the major scale, is usually used a lot in the
construction of choruses since it transmits joy, greatness, harmony and beauty.

It is mainly used in pop and rock music, although it can be found in all types of music and
musical genres. It is a great way to compose children's songs since it transmits joy or
positive songs to us.

The Ionic mode is also used to convey strength, drive and determination as in hymns.

On the other hand, it can sound very harmonious or perfect, so if you are looking to create
music with a climate of more tension or conflict, it is not usually the most appropriate way.

Ionian Mode Features

• Brilliant sound
• cheerful air
• Strength, determination and forcefulness
• Greatness
• Harmony and beauty.

Examples of songs in Ionian mode

• Happy birthday, national anthems, children's music

• The Beatles – Twist and Shout
• Jason Mraz – I'm Yours

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• Twinkle Twinkle Little Star

Doric Mode (II): The second mode is Doric, it is characterized by having a faintly
melancholic, dark and soft sound, but it has a dual tinge between happy and sad.

It is a very rich way, the musical sensation is difficult to determine because it depends a lot
on the listener's perception, their mood as well as the different elements with which the
song is built.

The Dorian mode, too, can sound a little “old”, “dark” or more
“elaborated” since this second mode is closely
associated with the sound of jazz, Celtic music, country, and folk, but it usually appears in
many different musical genres. The artists most identified with this mode are Santana and
Miles Davis.

Doric Mode Features

• Slightly dark sound

• melancholic tint
• Duality between happy and sad
• Jazz or classical sound

Examples of songs in Doric mode

• Tito Puente / Santana – Hey how it goes.

• Pink Floyd – Another Brick In The Wall (Part Two) (verso)
• Sting – if You Love Somebody
• The Zombies' - She's Not There

Phrygian Mode (III): One of the most versatile modes. Being a minor, it has a nuance of
melancholy but we could not define it as sad. In other words, the Phrygian mode is similar
to the Doric mode, but it differs from it in that the Phrygian mode has a much darker tone,
which is why it is usually associated with a more malevolent and evil sound.

On the other hand, it is also closely associated with the climate of mystery, contemplation
and reflection. It is widely used in guitar solos or solo compositions, mainly in classic
metal. One of the artists most identified in this way is Randy Rhoads.

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Phrygian Mode Features

• Dark sound
• Malevolent, sinister, threatening
• Mystery
• Reflection and Contemplation
• Gypsy, Spanish, Andalusian, Arabic or flamenco
flavor .

Examples of songs in Phrygian mode

• Megadeath – Symphony of Destruction

• Iron Maiden – Remember Tomorrow
• Scorpions – The Sails Of Charon
• Metallica – Harvester Of Sorrow (riff)

Lydian Mode (IV): The fourth mode is the Lydian, it is characterized by having a happy
nuance that goes beyond what a major scale generally conveys to us. It is associated with a
spacey, dreamy, or mystical, fantastic air. It is different from the rest because it has an
exotic but familiar sound.

Mainly it transmits an air of greatness, faith and inspiration, which is why it is often widely
used in film music.

We can also understand the Lydian mode as a sound associated with what is funny, or
"silly", it is worth thinking about the music of The Simpsons.

Lydian Mode Features

• Happy, positive or inspiring air

• Dreamy, exotic, mystical, spacey
• Greatness
• Brilliant sound

Examples of songs in Lydian mode

• John Williams – E.T. Theme

• REM – Man On The Moon
• Pearl Jam – Oceans
• Simpsons theme

Mixiolidian Mode (V): A great alternative to the Ionian mode is the Mixolydian Mode, it
is characterized by a very happy and “upbeat” sound that can be

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understood as youthful, carefree or summery.

It is closely associated with country, summer rain, innocence, and happiness, which is why
it has a very American or country sound (Old Joe Clark).

The mixolydian mode is closely associated with the sound of blues, rock and hard.
high speed rock.

Features of Mixiolidio mode

• cheerful air
• Summer and country
• Youthful and carefree
• Brilliant sound

Examples of songs in Mixiolidio mode

• Guns and Roses – Sweet Child of Mine

• Lynyrd Skynyrd – Sweet Home Alabama
• The Rolling Stones – Let It Loose
• The Beatles – Norwegian Wood (intro and verse)

Aeolian Mode (VI): The sixth mode is the Aeolian mode, better known as the natural
minor scale, it is generally associated with a sad and melancholic sound. This nuance is the
main characteristic with which it is related. In commercial music, one of the most common
resources is to use the Aeolian mode in the verses and the Ionian mode in the choruses.

It also evokes a dark air, which is why it is often used in Heavy Metal in general.

Without a doubt, it is one of the most used modes, it appears in all musical genres.

Wind mode features

• Dark and melancholic sound

• It is usually used as a variation to the Ionic mode.
• Sadness, melancholy, anger.

Examples of songs in Wind mode

• B.B. King – The Thrill is Gone

• Ozzy Osbourne – Crazy Train

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• Deep Purple – Child in Time

• REM – The One I Love (Section A)

Locrio Mode (VII): The sound of the Locrio Mode is characterized by having a
depressive, gloomy, gloomy, and dull tone. It is the most unstable and least used mode, so
there are not many songs in this mode, where it is most used.
It is used in jazz, heavy metal and classical music.

It is not characterized as a very pleasant sound, given the unusualness of its intervals.

It rarely appears in rock and blues music due to its strange construction.

Locrio Mode Features

• Dark sound
• Excessive tension
• Disgusting
• Unstable
• Psycho

Examples of songs in Locrio mode

• Black Sabbath – Symptom of the Universe (intro and verse)

• Rush – YYZ (intro)
• Metallica – …And Justice for All (verse)
• Judas Priest – Painkiller (verse)

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5TH YEAR
Amalgam compasses
Amalgamating is joining or gluing two or more things together. Amalgam measures are
those obtained by adding two or more measures, which can be simple with each other, or
composed with each other.
Simple amalgam measures are those whose numerator is 5, 7 or 9. We arrive at the 5-
stroke by joining one with three and another with two strokes. They are usually joined in
this order, but there may be a 2 + 3 beat division. In the 7, we add one of four and one of
three, and in the 9, one of four, one of three and one of two. This last measure is not used
in practice, because it is confused with the compound that has the same numerator.
Composite time signatures can also be merged, but there are time signature formulas of
15/8 (6+9), 21/8 (9+12) and 27/8 (6+9+12), so they only remain theoretical. .
The measures that we are going to hear the most are those of 5 and 7 beats. In 5 times the
denominator used is 4, and in 7 times, 8.
There are very well-known songs that are written in this type of time signature. "Mission
Impossible" by Lalo Schifrin, is in 5 beats. Groups like Genesis or Rush use these rhythms
in many of their songs.
To clearly visualize the union of the compasses into one amalgam, a dotted dividing line
can be made.

Zorcico Compass
It is 5 by 8, and it differs from amalgam because it is not divided by vertical dotted lines.
In practice, this beat has remained as an indication of the Basque zorcico rhythm.

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Normal scales of our era

Scales normally used in the following Western musical styles: rock, pop, electronic, tango,
cumbia, reggaetón, ska, reggae, country, Latin, classical, etc.
• Major Scale (Ionian mode)
• Natural minor scale (aeolian mode)
• harmonic minor scale
MAJOR scale Natural minor scale harmonic minor scale
, C MAJOR (without alterations) The minor (without alterations) The minor

my
youngest
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D MAJOR Yes minor Yes minor

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7 Ft #c» © 41 fH 5 «» 4 ----------- - ----or---
+9---or •-----------------------L.I.--------------------------II -------------------- ----■ ■ Or-----h'--------------
or

63- ’ ' 6- “ "

IF MAJOR Q to 44
Solí minor Solí minor

*
FAS MAJOR minor res Lesser laugh

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my youngest
MAJOR SUN E» minor
M'g —0-0—5—", H b / . 2
tJ or » J——

D» MAJOR Yes minor Bb minor

bk
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01‘
THE BIGGEST ■ F minor F minor

7 knh . _ g,—or JU_ °__________ <52b - - -, — or — C7 — 9 Yo g, or 1o

*

Mb MAJOR minor trouble C minor

or ° ° —
and. oo • 1
eo • "

IF MAJOR to G minor
- in
G minor
----------- Hg, 0_
_

F MAJOR D minor D minor

and or • 11 either • -

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Basic chords from the emotional

Scales normally used in the following Western musical styles:

Not talking about emotions when talking about music - or any art - is an important
deficiency since the works that we usually frequent usually cause us emotions of pleasure,
that is, emotions are the most important thing in a work of art, more even the method used,
since BEFORE knowing the construction method used in a work, we perceive the
emotions that the work itself emanates, and our emotions are satisfied or dissatisfied at that
moment. Then, in any case, the 'intellectual' explanation of the compositional mechanisms
used may or may not come, but the first filter to decide if we liked or did not like a work of
art is the emotional filter, and nothing guarantees that with more complex mechanisms you
will get more emotions or stronger emotions or stronger emotional vibrations.

Basically we have 2 types of brain memory:

1) INTELLECTUAL MEMORY: memorize through repetition, intellectualization and
calculation (our entire educational system uses this type of

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2) memory by 90%).
3) FLASH MEMORY OR EMOTIONAL MEMORY: based on high-impact emotional
impressions, this memory is stronger than intellectual memory, meaning that NOT using it
in learning music would really be wasting a very valuable resource that we have to
recognize chords, links, cadences and anything we can hear and 'feel'.

CHEERFUL SAD - - SAD - - - JOYFUL + JOYFUL + SAD - QUEER'---

Repose. Deep. Depressant. Thoughtful Effusive. Melancholic. Highly strung.
Calm. Thoughtful. Fallen. Optimistic. Masculillo. Nostalgic. Restless.
Stillness. Optimistic. Crestfallen. Female . Restless. Not so sad. Dislocated.
Peace. Distressed. Not effusive. Asset. Evil one.
Very sad.

Mm m M M m dim.
** emotions arise from laws of physical forces and massive psychological-social association issues. **remember that
'Harmony' is only 1 emotional dimension of the 1 4 emotional dimensions .

musical forms
When we use the word form, we are mainly talking about organization. It may be that the
term is referring to the number of parts that constitute the work: binary form (two parts),
ternary form (three parts); to size and complexity: sonata, symphony; or the way of
grouping rhythm, melody and harmony. To facilitate the understanding of an idea, the
speech must have coherence; Each thought emission must relate to the previous one and
prepare the way for a later conclusion.
Therefore, form can be defined as a set of features shared by a large number of artistic
works, although the content or theme is completely different. What concerns us, in the
meaning of the term, is the way in which the parts relate.
Within popular music the most common forms are: pop, blues, rock, jazz; and each of
them attends to a particular way of organization (sections, rhythm, harmony, melody, etc.).
When talking about contemporary popular music, the word form is usually replaced by
genre, however reference is still made to a way of organizing parts. The problem with the
classification of popular music is because it is still developing, unlike traditional music
whose forms are much more established. When talking about sections or parts we will use
capital letters to differentiate them from each other: A, B, C... if any of the parts is repeated
we will use the letter that represents it again, for example: ABA

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Pop
In this context, the letters ABAC that identify a section are replaced by verse (V), chorus
(C), bridge (P), introduction (I). We can, of course, write instrumental pieces and group
them under these terms but we must remember that the structure delimits, by itself, a form
and in popular music a genre.
A fairly common structure for pop is presented below.

SECTION DESCRIPTION

Introduction (1)
It is generally instrumental and sets the mood of the composition in general.
Verse (V) Beginning of the story or theme of the song.
Chorus (C) It's the most memorable part.
Verse (V) Continuation of the story.
Chorus (C) Full reinterpretation.
Bridge (P) It is generally instrumental, giving opportunity for a solo to occur.
Chorus (C) Repetition of the chorus, one or several times.

Blues
It is one of the forms that lay the foundations for the development of popular music of the
20th century. The structure is composed of three parts of four measures, in its most basic
form (ABA) although there are many more. The form is delimited as follows:
IIII
IV IV II
V IV II
Each of the Roman numerals represents a chord of the major scale.

Rock
The origin of the rock structure is linked to the blues, and especially its 32-bar form.
Compositions such as Whole lotta love by Led Zeppelin, Hey Jude by The Beatles use this
form: AABA with eight bars in each section. It is also usually presented as AABAB2
where the last part (B2) is conceived as a bridge that sends back to the 32-bar form, for
example in: Every breath you take by The Police, I wanna hold your hand by The Beatles,
More than a feeling of Boston.

Jazz
Like rock, traditional jazz is usually based on a 32-bar AABA construction with eight bars
in each section. The true meaning of jazz is improvisation based on an established piece
(standard) and melodic reinterpretation.

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Bibliography
• Albert Williams. Music Theory.
• Schoenberg, Arnold. Fundamentals of musical composition. Ed. Real Musical.
Madrid, 1989.
• Luis David Palacios Villegas. Theoretical studies. Harmony
• Mauro de María. Comprehensive composition.
• www.writesongs.com
• www.cresciente.net

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