NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION

ENRIQUE GUZMÁN Y VALLE

Alma Mater of the National teaching profession

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

PHONETIC CHANGES. DIDACTIC APPLICATION

UPDATED THROUGH A LEARNING SESSION
Professional proficiency exam Resolution No. 0451-2018-d-FCSYH

MONOGRAPH
PRESENTED BY

Hilda YUCRA VARGAS

TO APPLY FOR THE PROFESSIONAL TITLE

DEGREE OF EDUCATION,
SPECIALTY: AP. SPANISH LANGUAGE, AS. LITERATURE
Lima-Peru 2018

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I. Members of the jury

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 II. Index of contents

I. Members of the jury

II. Table of contents
III. Introduction
IV. Corpus of work

UNIT 1 : basic notions of phonetics

1.1 Communication and language
1.1.1 Communication
1.1.2 Language, language and speech
1.1.3 Dialect, sociolect, interlect and idiolect
1.1.4 differences between phonetics and phonology
1.2 Speech production mechanisms
1.2.1 The pronunciation
1.2.2 speaking organs
1.2.3 Articulation of speech sounds
a) Articulation mode
b) point of articulation
c) Action of the vocal cords
d) Action of the uvula or uvula
1.2.4 phonetic units
a) Sound, phono and allophone
b) Phoneme, archphoneme
c) tone and intonation
1.2.5 Complementary allophonic distribution
1.2.6 Phoneme contrast system
1.3 Phonetic disciplines
1.3.1 Functional phonetics

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 1.3.2 Articulatory phonetics
1.3.3 Experimental phonetics
1.3.4 Perceptual phonetics
1.3.5 Acoustic phonetics

UNIT 2: phonetic changes

2.1 Linguistic evolution of Spanish
2.1.1 The native language in Hispania
a) Latin vulgar
b) Romance languages
c) The Castilian
2.1.2 Diachronic phonetic changes
a) Vocalism
b) Consonantism
c) Diphthongation
d) Metathesis
2.1.3 Types of diachronic phonetic changes

2.2 Sociolinguistic variations of Spanish in Peru

2.2.1 Comprehensive view of Spanish
2.2.2 Synchronous phonetic changes
a) Vocalism
b) Consonantism
2.2.3 Types of synchronous phonetic changes
a) Phonetic change by addition
b) Phonetic change due to deletion
c) Phonetic change by induction
d) Phonetic change due to diphthongization and monophthongization
e) Phonetic change due to accentual shift
f) Physiological phonetic change

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 g) Phonetic change by point of articulation
h) Phonetic change due to the action of the vocal cords
i) Phonetic change due to the action of the uvula or bell

V. Didactic application
VI. Synthesis
VII. Critical appreciation and suggestions
VIII. Bibliography
IX. Conclusions
X. annexes

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 III. Introduction

The various manifestations of human behavior have always attracted the interest of science.
The analysis of the complex communication process has provided a wealth of data that
allows us to consider man as a being different from the other species on the planet. By
studying the peculiarities of the language and its functioning, specialists have segmented
the sound chain of speech into several dimensions: sentences, words, syllables, until they
are able to isolate the smallest units such as sounds and their features that characterize
them.
On the other hand, the history of the Spanish language has been the subject of very
valuable works. The common thread of his work is the external history of the Spanish
language and through it he proposes the evaluation of phonetic change. The reader will find
valuable data on the evolution of Castilian until it became the Spanish language. In this
situation, a historical vision of the constitution and development of the Spanish language is
offered in summary form as a reflection of cultural evolution.
Initially, in the study of languages, phoneticians considered that speech sounds were
physical units that could be identified and described in isolation. From this approach
derived the idea of establishing a single phonetic alphabet, through which any of the sounds
of human speech could be represented, with due precision, to the point of recording the
most imperceptible variations present in oral communication.
With this small work on phonetics and phonology I want to contribute to students
specializing in Spanish Language and Literature. The text contains the most basic notions
about the topics corresponding to the part of experimental linguistics that deals with the
study of speech sounds. It consists of two units: elementary notions of phonetics, and
phonetic variations focused from its two modalities: diachronic and synchronic.

IV: Corpus of work

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 Unit 1. Elementary notions of phonetics and phonology

Basic Competence:

Describes and explains the nature, structure and functioning of sound elements of
the Spanish language in its universal and particular features, taking into account
the standard speech of the community.

Basic content :

UNIT 1 : ELEMENTARY NOTIONS OF PHONETICS

1.1 Communication and language
1.1.1 Communication
1.1.2 Language, language and speech
1.1.3 Dialect, sociolect, interlect and idiolect
1.1.4 differences between phonetics and phonology
1.2 Speech production mechanisms
1.2.1 The pronunciation
1.2.2 speaking organs
1.2.3 Articulation of speech sounds
e) Articulation mode
f) point of articulation
g) Action of the vocal cords
h) Action of the uvula or uvula
1.2.4 phonetic units
d) Sound, phono and allophone
e) Phoneme, archphoneme
f) tone and intonation
1.2.5 Complementary allophonic distribution
1.2.6 Phoneme contrast system

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1.3 Phonetic disciplines
1.3.1 Functional phonetics
1.3.2 Articulatory phonetics
1.3.3 Experimental phonetics
1.3.4 Perceptual phonetics
1.3.5 Acoustic phonetics

1.1 Human communication and language

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Man has always lived communicating with his fellow human beings. To carry out linguistic
interaction, it has developed the language it speaks in its environment.

1.1.1 human communication

Communication is a very important process in human beings and their education. He has
used it to satisfy the needs of survival, reproduction, food, defense, learning, etc. As an
interactive process, it is essential for life because it establishes and maintains social
relationships between men, controls behavior. individualizations duos and groups, feeds
and transfers culture. Says Berlo, D. (1987).

Communication is always the exchange of messages between interlocutors in

the form of dialogue and functionally linked. te with the natural and social
environment through actions and signs . In communication, interlocutors
relate thought and language during human action; man is a communicative
being tive par excellence, is as if " entangled in the communicative tion » and
cannot live « without communicating » (p. 45).

According to the author, the communication process is cyclical and not unilateral. In
effect, the roles of "sender" and "receiver" continually change through the mediating
element of language; and it is not difficult to distinguish between linguistic and non-
linguistic communication, so that the concept of communication encompasses all human
behavior, its important ingredient being the feeling of contact with reality.

1.1.2 language
Communication possibilities are realized thanks to the development of the human brain.
Therefore, the person uses their language faculty to express and understand the infinite
sentences that they produce in their mother tongue, using a series of vocalic linguistic signs
internalized in the mind-brain; The capacity for language is a biological inheritance,
genetically determined and that develops in contact with a specific physical environment.

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 The science that studies language is linguistics, which does so from two perspectives.
In a strict sense, it is man's capacity for symbolic representation, where the use of signs
and codes enable the realization of expressive skills during communication; In a broad
sense, it is the human language faculty, biologically inherited and genetically determined,
that enables the speaker to understand and produce infinite oral messages in a given
language. (D'Introno, F.; Guitar, J. and Zamora, J. (1996). The acquisition and use of
phonic sign systems, articulated and conventional, are governed by rules that govern the
natural languages used by man.
Child, D. (1994) says that language is the ability observed in all human beings to
communicate through the oral signs of languages. The set of all human languages has
been characterized in their common or universal and particular properties. Language,
according to Sales, L. (2004), is a conventional system of habitual vocal behavior,
through which members of a community communicate with each other.
In short, language is defined as the ability ity or faculty of men to acquire and
learn one or more natural languages. The newborn does not know how to speak, but it has
the ability to learn a language that distinguishes it from other living beings. Language is
an instrument of communication development called by the mental faculty and constituted
by a system of signs that allows man in relation meet and interact tuar with their peers.
Language belongs to experience daily experience and serves as a means for the act of
participating with others in the logical and rational framework of thoughts. ments through
conventional terms and phrases. Language allows the person the cognitive apprehension
of reality, the development of thought, the socio-affective attitude, action and
communication.
Structuralist linguistic science began with the Swiss Ferdi nand de Saussure, who
established two fundamental aspects mental: language and speech; On the other hand,
generative linguistics, inaugurated by Chomsky, considered duality "compete cia” and
“performance” as the characterizing axes of human language.

a) Language

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Language is a system of historically determined signs, belonging to the language of each
linguistic community (for example, Spanish, Quechua, English, etc.). Each language can
express the same thing as any other, although with different categories and with different
means of expression; It shows properties that are constant and firm in every community, it
has its own rules and its way of sound and graphic organization. In no other domain of
culture does the past survive in a given language.
Language ( linguistic, social and interpersonal model ) is characterized by being a
social product and belonging to a system of abstract and finite forms (in this case
phonemes), common to all speakers in a community. (Child, D. 1994).

b) Speaks
To carry out speech, the human being uses the voice. The sounds produced in the larynx
resonate in the ear through the air current expelled by the lungs during breathing and
physiologically modified through articulation; It travels through the oral and nasal cavities,
becoming phones or air currents that are used to transmit messages. Says Ramírez, H.
(1996):
The organs of the human body that are involved in the emission of voice
constitute the vocal system, which include lungs, bronchi, trachea, larynx,
pharynx, uvula, palate, tongue, lips, teeth and nasal passages. It is possible to
affirm with Mattoso, J. that there is to a certain extent a predisposition of the
animal voice to be used as language, particularly in man in whom it appears so
malleable and rich in resources. (p. 25).

Finally, according to Saussure (1997), speech is the individual exercise or realization

of language, an intrapersonal and individual use, where a sender shares meanings with a
receiver in various contexts of reality.
Speech ( linguistic mechanism, individual and intrapersonal ) manifests itself as a
concrete act of expression that transfers thoughts, facts, ideas, events, etc., using a system
of oral signs, or abstract model internalized in the minds of the interlocutors and that It is

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 concretized in real communication situations. Here, abstract forms are combined and enter
into a syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationship, forming sound chains. (D'Introno 1995).

1.1.3 Sociolect, dialect, interlect and idiolect

A normal and common fact is the existence of linguistic varieties within a language related
to society. Linguists call this phenomenon of language variations: sociolect, dialect, idiolect
and interlect. (Escobar, A. 1978).

a) Sociolect
The sociolect describes the linguistic variety used by a social class and corresponds to the
diastratic variety that reflects the language-society relationship. The country of the target
language is not a homogeneous group, but rather a set of social and cultural groups that use
different sociolects or language registers. Each language and each sociolect are synthesizers
and reinforcers of the values and social norms of the community where it is used as a
communication tool. (Da Silva, H. M. 2005).

b) Dialect
The dialect is a certain collective and geographical modality of a language that has
phonetic, lexical and grammatical modalities. Each dialect is specialized according to the
region to which the inhabitants belong; thus, the Spanish spoken in the different regions of
America (Peruvian, Mexican, Cuban, etc.); or in the different geographical areas of Peru
(coastal Castilian, Andean Castilian or jungle Castilian). These modes of speech do not
imply error in those who use them, but they have their geographical limitation and do not
belong to general Spanish; it does not break the intelligibility of a linguistic community.
The speakers of a dialect understand each other and recognize their relevance to a specific
language that is part of a set of regional speeches; In the same way, it coexists in the same
individual and is differentiated by the different direction of its linguistic ideal. The dialect
supposes a local spirit, an affection for the native and attention to the peculiar and
immediate; On the other hand, the language is general, has a spirit of universality, a
preference for cosmopolitanism and aspires to a higher validity. (Ramirez, L. H. (1996).

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c) Interlect
Interlect is an interlanguage that responds to a complex system. It is not the result of
contrast; and due to its geographical and social spread, it runs in step with the migratory
intensity from the mountains to the coast and the globalization of the countries of the
world; It becomes a social dialect spread in all regions of the country. In reality, intellect is
the Spanish spoken by a Quechua speaker in the process of learning Spanish. (Escobar, A.
1978). Among the features we have:
 Imprecision of its vocalism : Spanish is a language whose vowel system is
characterized by having five vowel openings, as opposed to Quechua which has three
vowel openings.
 Restriction of vowel groups : determined by the canonical forms of Quechua
compared to those of Spanish, which does not present major restrictions.
 Accentual imprecision : in Spanish the accent is phonological, it is not normally
so in Quechua or Aymara; situation that disrupts the location of the Spanish accent.
 Firmness of consonantism : certain features of popular Spanish appear in the
speaker's intellect such as relaxations and vowel closure.
 Instability of gender and number : generally in the noun causing imprecise
agreement or omission of the article.

d) Idiolect
The idiolect is the language register that appears related to the individual speech of a
linguistic system. If the largest group coincides with the national language, the lowest limit
of this dialect division would be the idiolect, that is, the totality of the speech habits of a
single person at a given time. This form of speech is between language (code common to
all speakers in a community) and speech (particular use of the code by each individual).
(Ramirez, L. H. 1996)

1.1.4. Basic concepts of phonetics and phonology

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To study the peculiarities of language and its functioning, for centuries, linguists have
proceeded to segment the sound chain of speech into units of various dimensions:
sentences, words, morphemes, syllables and phonemes.

UNITS LEVEL OF
PHONES ANALYSI
S

/bless youloved friend/ speech

/cheers/ /dearfriend/ prayer

/Cheers/ /beloved/ /friend/ words

/sa/-/lúd/ /ke/-/ri/-/do/ /a/-/me/-/go/ syllables

/sal-ú-d/ /ker-í-do/ /am-í-go/ phonemes

With the advancement of research, segmentation does not end at the phoneme level.
Currently, each sound has been configuratively characterized as a set of features, of which
only some, the so-called relevant ones, allow messages to be distinguished. In this situation,
Phonetics is the linguistic science that deals with the study of the sound material of
language (phones, allophones and their features), as well as its allophonic variations
without change in meaning; On the other hand, Phonology is the linguistic science that
studies abstract phonetic entities (phonemes and archphonemes) as stable systems and
their relevant or distinctive features for communication.
Example. Let the words /kerído/ and /salúd/, and the phonemes /k/ and /s/ be
characterized by having a set of common and differential features such as:

/k/ /s/

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 occlusive fricative
to ensure alveolar
deaf deaf
oral oral

For the human ear, the variants of phones in allophones are irrelevant. It only
recognizes the ideal forms, with which it understands and produces messages. In the
context of communication, phonetics studies phonic and allophonic variations in the
spoken chain that have no relevance for the understanding or production of messages; On
the other hand, phonology is responsible for systematizing these allophonic variations into
idealized and oppositional representations (phonemes) that every speaker recognizes as a
system of finite units (language) with relevance for the understanding and production of
oral messages.
Finally, coding and decoding mechanisms require minimal abstract units endowed
with meaning such as grammatical units (morphemes, words, phrases, sentences,
paragraphs and texts); and others, lacking meaning, such as phonological units (syllables,
phonemes, features, etc.); as can be seen in the table below.

UNITS UNITS
SIGNIFICANT NOT SIGNIFICANT
(Grammars) (Phonological)

Prayer

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 Words Morphemes

Syllable

Morphemes Syllables
Phoneme

In this scheme, the morpheme and the syllable converge at the same
level. It means that there is no precise limit between both units;
example: /sol/, which could well be a word, a morpheme or a syllable.

The Prague Linguistic Circle highlighted the functional value of the phonological
discipline. He proceeded to define the phoneme as its primary object, describing the
process of delimiting them. The program covered the following aspects:
 He conceived language as a functional system, whose purposes
were: expression and communication.
 They set themselves the task of studying language, seeing it as a
complex phenomenon, where the phonic aspect consisted of three plots:
a) Sound as an objective physical fact.
b) The acoustic representation of said sound as a stable and fixed symbol.
c) Its integration into a functional system .

For the study of phonetics and phonology, Haymann established three criteria:
temporal, internal and distributional perspective.
 Temporal perspective: Phonology studies closely related diachrony and
synchrony. The first addresses the mutations that the phonic system of the language
suffers over time, producing changes in the phonic structure of languages;
Synchronous phonology, on the other hand, can dispense with time to focus only on a

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 current state of language, focusing all its attention on the study of the relationships
and functions of the phonic elements.
 Internal perspective : there are three phonic levels that have been
differentiated in this aspect : sound, word and phrase. Alarcos and Muljavic note
that in principle this division can be applied in both synchronic and diachronic
phonology.

1.1.5 Differences between phonetics and phonology

The speaker always believes he is pronouncing, in all acts of communication, the same
sounds. This occurs because the functional phonic elements are perceived as products of an
intentionality with which users fix the signs of the language.
Example:
Sick : [ill] /sick/
Gum : [ensays] /enzy/
Before : [aŋxel] /angel/
Broad : [áñčo] /ánčo/
Five : (yes) /sínko/

Each sound pronounced between brackets acquires an articulatory and acoustic

particularity conditioned by multiple factors: articulatory configuration, nature of the
sounds, complementary distribution, etc. Thus, each allophonic realization [m, n, ñ, ŋ, ņ]
is conditioned by the phonic context in which it appears; On the other hand, the abstract
sounds of the language, such as /n/, become abstract representations of the former. Here,
the difference between phonetics and phonology is fundamental: the phoneme entity, in
language, is abstract; Phones and allophones, in speech, are concrete realizations.
According to phonology , every language functions with a limited system of phonemes
acquired consciously or unconsciously; According to phonetics , the limited (finite)
number of phonemes has infinite realizations in speech. For example:

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 Pronounced sounds (phones) Ideal sounds (phonemes)

/n/
Labiodentalized [m]
Dentalized [ ņ ]
Alveolar [n]
Palatalized [ñ]
Velarized [ŋ]

Phonetics and phonology do not constitute two separate branches of the study of oral
language, but rather different but complementary in speech. Phonetics indicates that speech
is made by a continuous stream of sounds and speakers/listeners segment the phonic signal
into discrete units; for example: [sáŋgre] in [s]-[á]-[ŋ]-[g]-[r]-[e] with their corresponding
configurations of articulatory features. Phonology sees each segmented unit as the discrete,
oppositional entity systematized into a formal class based on relevant features, such as the
phoneme /n/. Phonetic characterization conceives these entities in their phonic or
allophonic materialization, with their physical and acoustic properties.
Another fundamental difference between phonetics and phonology is the
articulatory and acoustic description of speech sounds and their respective psychological
representation. Articulatory phonetics describes and explains the configuration of the
articulatory organs to emit the sounds of the language, that is, it differentiates the
universal properties from the particular properties of each language. On the other hand,
articulatory phonology provides the symbology of the internal representations that each
speaker identifies as an intrapersonal element but common to all members of a
community, whose symbolizations are not identical to their physical properties.

1.2 Mechanisms of speech production

The human voice is the essential factor of oral expression. The use of the voice activates
the sound system of the language related to its meaning; the speaker uses it as an instrument

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of communication; The information carried by the message is the content that represents
reality through language and controls speech acts. The development of the phonic aspect of
the language includes: pronunciation, voice intensity and intonation, factors that serve as
configurators of the lexicon and the sound structure of human language.

2.1.1 The pronunciation

Since the appearance of man, communication was essentially oral. Information circulated
through sound signs of a physical and acoustic nature; To obtain greater communicative
effectiveness, the speaker/listener required knowledge of articulatory movement, a
mechanism that allows describing the sounds of language. The systematization of sounds
was with abstract symbols called phonemes; The recognition of phonemes in a finite
quantity allows the user to produce and understand infinite sentences and messages.
Each phoneme used by man results from the articulatory configuration adopted by the
supraglottic organs. The tongue and lips in contact with the teeth, the alveolar and palatal
area make up most of the sounds of language; as well as the movements made by the vocal
cords, the uvula or uvula, etc.
Madeleine Zúñiga Castillo (1978, p. 3) establishes the principles of good
pronunciation:
 Articulation : Only language sounds that are heard with proper articulation can be
reproduced well; By this principle, articulatory movements must be intimately linked
only to the phonemes of a specific language. The different articulatory movements
that characterize each phoneme constitute distinctive features linked to changes in
meaning.

 Contrast : one sound is distinguished from another when it enters into a syntagmatic
relationship within the phonic chain. This principle is basic to differentiate one phone
from another phone through discrimination procedures and oral production of
phonemes.

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 Graduation of difficulties : in the presentation of teaching material it means that you
should start from the easiest pronunciations to the most complicated ones.

2.1.2 The speaking apparatus

The speaker puts his articulatory organs into physiological operation. The human voice that
comes from the glottis is modified and resonates in the nasal, oral and pharyngeal cavities.
Although the primary function of these organs and cavities is biological (vital), in a
volitional process of phonation they are used by man (in a conscious, conventional and
arbitrary way) to produce the sounds of speech. This phonation system includes the lungs,
trachea, larynx, pharynx, and oral and nasal cavities. (D'Introno, 1995). The area between
the larynx (glottis) and the lips constitutes the vocal tract itself. For a better understanding
of the systematic structure of the speech organs, it has been classified as follows:

a) Organs of the supraglottic cavity

The organs of the supraglottic cavity are distributed in two resonance chambers: the nasal
cavity and the oral cavity (D'Introno 1995).

 Nasal cavity : The nasal passages, in addition to serving as a conduit for air to the lungs,
function as a resonance box for the production of certain nasal sounds of the language
/m/, /n/, /ñ/. During articulation, the uvula makes two movements: one of closure,
sticking to the pharyngeal wall; and another opening, moving away from it to give
free passage to the air current that moves towards the nasal passages. The organs of
the nasal cavity are: the nasal passages, the uvula or uvula and the pharyngeal wall.
 Oral cavity : it is a complex oral resonance box. Most of the sounds of language are
articulated here: the tongue, lips, and uvula are active organs; and passive organs the
teeth, the alveolar, palatal and velar areas. The tongue constitutes the articulatory base
of the oral cavity due to its great capacity for movement: it retracts, advances,
elevates, etc. The tongue comprises the following parts: apex, dorsum, and post
dorsum of the tongue. The oral cavity, which serves as a point of contact for the

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 tongue, includes anterior areas of articulation such as the lips, teeth and alveoli; and
posterior areas such as the palatal, velar and uvular.

b) Organs of the laryngeal cavity

The part between the epiglottic membrane and the trachea is called the laryngeal tube.
Inside the tube are located: the epiglottis and the vocal cords . The first is a membrane that
covers the entrance to the laryngeal tube, preventing the passage of food into the respiratory
tract; during normal breathing it remains open. The vocal cords constitute the most
important organ of phonation; Its organic nature consists of two muscular membranes
similar to lips; both muscles; By the action of the air that returns from the lungs, they
vibrate, producing the human voice . In the articulation of sound, the vocal cords perform
three movements: full opening for normal breathing, partial opening for voiceless sounds,
and full closure for voiced sounds.

c) Organs of the infraglottic cavity

The organs of the infraglottic cavity are made up of: lungs, bronchi, tracheas and
diaphragm. The lungs, during speech, do not remain at rest, they expel air actively driven
by the diaphragms. The exhaled air is the raw material of speech, the basis and foundation
of the word. The force with which they expel the air determines the intensity, tone and
duration. There are few speech sounds produced by inspired air.

2.1.3 phonation
Phonation is a physiological process always produced in the expiratory phase. The expelled
air returning from the lungs is stopped by the closure of the vocal cords; The air current
overcomes the resistance of the strings and makes them vibrate, producing the human
voice. The brain transmits an impulse to the articulatory organs that becomes an instruction
to adopt different shapes and contacts depending on the sound to be produced.

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Consequently, phonation is the very moment of the emission of the human voice through a
set of physiological mechanisms that are carried out as follows:
a) Inspired air passes through the larynx. There are the vocal cords, two
cartilaginous muscle tissues that separate to facilitate the passage of air, or come
together to interrupt and produce the emission of sounds.
b) The articulated sound is directed towards the oral or nasal cavity
(depending on the movement of the uvula). In the mouth, with the configuration of
the active and passive organs, it is modified according to the impulse ordered by the
brain.

2.1.4 The breathing

The breathing process is active. It is carried out in two phases: Inspiration , a moment that
consists of bringing the air into the lungs; and the expiration moment the air is expelled
from the lungs. This second phase is characterized by producing the greatest number of
speech sounds. The respiratory system constitutes the main source of energy to produce
language sounds. The energy, provided in the form of a flow or current of air, produces
pressures that act or interact on the structures of the speech apparatus to produce the voice
that we perceive as sounds (Ana Borzone, 1980). The respiratory system acts as a
regulatory parameter, influencing the intensity of the voice and the emission, the accent,
emphasis and the division of speech into various units (syllables, words, phrases).

The main components of the respiratory system are: Upper respiratory tract (nasal
passages, mouth, pharynx); lower tracts (lungs, bronchi, trachea and larynx). The upper
respiratory tract and trachea behave exclusively as passageways for air to the lungs.

1.2.3 Sound articulation mechanisms

Guitart (1996) says that the vibration of the vocal folds produces the fundamental tone of
the voice. But the vibrations are not always the same: they depend on the shape that the oral
cavity has adopted, thanks to the changes in position of the tongue, lips and the relative
opening produced by the action of the lower jaw. The first major classification separates

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vowel phonemes articulated without any obstruction from consonant phonemes articulated
with some obstruction.

a) Articulatory description of vowels

The vowel phonemes of Spanish are described taking into account four classification
criteria: mode of articulation, point of articulation, action of the lips and position of the
uvula or bell.

Vowels , according to the degree of opening, are classified as closed (high), medium
(semi-open) and low (fully open) with their respective allophones.

closed (high)
Yo or
semi open (socks)
and either

open (low)
to

Due to the point of articulation, they can be: palatal, central and velar. In the
palatal series /e/-/i/, the lips form an oblong (ovoid) opening as the tongue approaches the
palatal area. The vowel /a/ is articulated in the central part that corresponds to the neutral
zone in the first half of the oral cavity. In the velar series /o/-/u/, the lips take on a more
rounded shape as the tongue curves toward the velar area.

palatal series Central velar series

(elongated) (labialized)

Yo or

and to either

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 The general characteristics of vowels, within the phonological perspective, according
to Alarcos Llorach (1981), constitute sounds that, combined with each other or in isolation,
form words, morphemes, and syllables.
For example:

TO Preposition

I have Verb

and
and
Conjunction
either
or

Within the syllabic structure, the vowels adopt the climax capacity of greater
opening, perceptibility and vibratory tension, occupying the articulatory summit of the
syllable. For example, in a monosyllabic voice /pan/, the vowel is produced with greater
openness, occupying the syllabic peak with respect to the consonants that are placed on the
articulatory slope:

to syllabic peak

V
p n syllabic slope
c c

24
 Vowels by their degree of opening-perceptibility and localization-timbre can be
characterized according to the established table (D'Introno 1995).

VOWELS OPENING-PERCEPTIBILITY LOCATION-BELL

maximum Maximum central Neutral
/to/
half Half former Sharp
/and/
minimum Minimum former Sharp
/Yo/
half Half later Serious
/either/
minimum Minimum later Serious
/or/

In the phonic chain of speech, vowels contrast in phones and allophones conditioned
by the complementary distribution of sounds. It means that the context they occupy in the
chain determines their realization, receiving the feature of the adjacent sounds.

We complete the phonetic and phonological inventory referring to the phonetic

values of “and” (conjunction):
1. Between two consonants it is pronounced like an [i].
Example:
Trees and birds [treesibirds]

2. Between consonant and vowel it is pronounced as a semiconsonant [j].

Example:
They speak and write [ablánjescriben]
3. Between vowel and consonant it becomes a semivowel [i].
Example:
Father and mother [pádreimádre]
4. Between vowels it is pronounced as a fricative [y]

25
 Example:
This and that [this and that]
5. In forms like: law, I am, I give they are pronounced as a semivowel [i]
[lei], [soi], [doi].

Phonetically, vowels are the sounds that present the greatest opening of the articulatory
organs, the greatest number of vibrations of the vocal folds in a unit of time (the
frequencies) that constitute their harmonics; Therefore, phonologically they have the
greatest musicality and become fundamental tones.

b) Articulatory description of consonants

The consonant phonemes of Spanish are characterized as articulatory noises. Phonetics
describes its articulatory configuration taking into account four fundamental criteria: mode
of articulation, point of articulation, action of the uvula or bell and action of the vocal
cords.
 Mode of articulation: it is related to the degree of opening of the oral canal left by
the lower jaws during the pronunciation of consonant sounds in Spanish. Speakers
articulate consonants with a certain degree of obstruction that converts sounds into
noises. Furthermore, the vocal folds present a smaller tension, vibrating a smaller
number of times per unit of time; hence it has a low fundamental tone. This group of
phonemes, due to the constriction that the oral canal presents, can have total, partial,
momentary, lateral or complex obstruction. So:

PHONEMES ARTICULATORY DESCRIPTION

/b/, /p/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/ They present total obstruction in their joint due to contact with the
articulating organ. The air stops momentarily and comes out like an
explosion. They are called plosives.

/f/, /s/, /y/, /x/ They articulate with partial obstruction, allowing air to pass with some
friction; That's why they are called fricatives.

26
 /r/, /rr/ The apex of the tongue hits the alveolar area once or several times.
Between blows and blows, momentary contact occurs. Its phonetic
name is simple or multiple vibrating.

/č/ This phoneme presents a complex articulation: first a total obstruction

occurs, followed by a frication. It is called Africada.

/l/, /λ/ The tongue makes contact with the alveolar or palatal area, it makes
total contact with the central part of the vault, but allows air to pass
freely through the sides.

 point of articulation; It refers to the place where an active organ comes into contact
with or approaches another passive organ to produce a certain narrowing in the oral
canal. Thus, the movement of the lower lip produces contact with the upper lip or
upper teeth; Likewise, the oscillation of the tongue towards the different points of the
upper vault of the oral cavity produces consonantal narrowing (partial or total
closure).

The consonants, depending on the point of articulation, are labial, labiodental,

dental, alveolar (or anterior); palatal, velar and uvular (or posterior).

CONSONANT PHONEMES BY THE POINT OF ARTICULATION

ORDER CLASS PHONEMES

LIPSTICK BILABIALS b, p, m

LABIODENTALS fc

INTERDENTAL Θ
DENTAL
DENTAL t, d

PALATALES s, l, n, r, rr

PALATALES PALATAL č, y, λ, ñ

27
 VELARS TO ENSURE k, g, x

 Action of the vocal cords: they are classified as voiced and voiceless: voiced when
the cords come together and the air makes them vibrate; deaf when the strings
partially approach each other and the air comes out rubbing, without making them
vibrate. The slipped sounds are the vowels /i/, /u/ that lose their accent trait before the
open vowels.

SOUNDS DEAF SOUND

VOCALICS /a, e, o, i, u/

SLIDING [j, i, w, u]

CONSONANTICS /P, f, θ, t, s, č, k, x/ /b, m, d, l, n, r, rr, y, λ, ñ, g/

 Action of the uvula bell : the movement of the uvula or bell closing against the
pharyngeal wall conditions the resonance of sound through the nose or oral cavity. If
the uvula moves away from the pharyngeal wall, the sound resonates in the nose
producing nasal sounds such as [n, m, ñ] and their allophones; On the contrary, if it
sticks, the sound comes out through the oral cavity producing oral sounds.
The consonant phonemes of Spanish are described taking into account the four sound
classification criteria: mode of articulation, point of articulation, action of the vocal cords
and position of the uvula or bell.
Phonetically, consonants are noises caused by the closure or narrowing of the oral
canal at certain points of articulation in the oral cavity. The obstruction produced reduces
the energy by converting sounds into non-sounding sounds (turbulence) and, therefore, to
be perceptible they use vowels (sonant) to be audible.
Example:

28
 Phoneme Name
/p/ pe
/b/ be
/s/ that
/x/ gee
/g/ gue

Consonants, like vowels, in speech have phonic and allophonic realizations

determined by complementary distribution. The inventory of phonemes with their
distribution according to the context where they are made is presented in the following
table.
The grave, acute, dense and diffuse features characterize the consonants according to
the shape adopted by the sound box; If it is divided by the position of the tongue, the
sounds are grave (labial and velar); If it is presented divided by the position of the tongue,
then the sounds are high-pitched (dental and palatal). The proximity of the tongue to the
pharyngeal wall defines the consonants as diffuse, but if it is close to the pharyngeal wall,
the sounds are characterized as dense (see both tables).

ARTICULATORY CRITERION ACOUSTIC CRITERIA

ORDER CLASSES

Lipstick
SERIOUS
Labiodental
DIFFUSE
Interdental

DENTAL Dental SHARP

alveolar

29
 PALATAL palatal DENSE

TO ENSURE Velars SERIOUS

Source: D'Introno (1995). Current phonetics and

phonology of Spanish.

According to the established table, the distribution of consonants, determined

acoustically, is recorded in the following table:

DIFFUSE DENSE
Graves Acute Graves Acute
deaf sonoro deaf sonoro deaf sonor deaf sonor
us us ous ous
Interrupted p b T d K g
(abrupt)
Interrupts F θ x yes z
(gradual)
Continuous Φ β and
Continuous mm nņ
approximations
Nasal m N
Vibrant rn
Sides l λ

Source: D'Introno (1995). Current phonetics and phonology of Spanish.

1.2.4 sound units

At the level of language, phonetics studies the sound material of language in its concrete
realization, such as phones and allophones. Phonology, on the other hand, studies the same
material but from the perspective of its abstract systematization such as phonemes and
archphonemes.

a) Phoneme

30
The notion of phoneme is relatively recent in linguistics. Speakers of a language have a
mental image of the sounds that are part of their code; Each entity belongs to the virtual
language system and is characterized by having a set of articulatory and acoustic
particularities (features) that speakers/listeners identify in the system. (Guitar, J. 1996).
Thus, from the phoneme code we extract the entities /t/ and /d/ whose features are
coincident and differential.

CODE

PHONEME TRAITS

Consonantal
/t/ Occlusive
Dental
Oral
Deaf

Consonantal
/d/ Occlusive
Dental
Oral
Sonorous

At the signifying level of the linguistic sign, phonemes are successive and
contrastive entities in the chain of speech; They are oppositional in the system or
paradigm (language). For example, the vowel phoneme /e/: contrasts syntagmatically with
the other phonemes in the chain /mésa/, but is paradigmatically opposed to the other
vowels of the system /i/, /o/, /a/, /u/ in the same point in the chain, changing meaning:

PLANE OF THE CONTENT PLAN

SIGNIFICANT The idea that has been
internalized of the referent that
CHAIN SYSTEM indicates the set of sounds

/ table / and Furniture-object

SIGN

31
 LINGUISTIC / mass / Yo liturgical act

/m-ú-sa/ either Young woman

Source: D'Introno (1995). Current phonetics and phonology of Spanish.

In the table, the sign [mésa] contains five successive phonemes, the same ones that
can enter into opposition with others in the system at the same point in the chain. Thus,
the vowel phoneme /e/ is opposed with /i/, /e/, /o/, /u/ giving rise to other units such as
[mésa], [mísa], [músa] with different meanings. Each phoneme of the sign is a minimal
unit but devoid of meaning by itself. For example [i], by itself means nothing; The same is
said of other entities such as the consonants [m] or [s].
In phonic transcription, phonemes constitute the sound material to encode the
message and are represented between bars.

b) Sound
Every moving body produces sounds. Men and animals share sounds. Man produces
articulated sounds and is characterized by being the product of a volitional act of phonation
and articulation. From the perspective of phonation, it is defined as the sound produced by
the air current that vibrates the vocal cords; articulationally it is modified in the oral cavity
according to the special configuration that the organs adopt; From acoustic perspective,
sounds are sound waves that travel through the air. (D'Introno 1995).

c) Phono
At the level of speech, phono is the articulatory realization of each phoneme. For example,
the phonemes of the signifier [p-á-to].

PHONEME PHONE ARTICULATION

It is performed with total interruption of the lips, resonates

/p/ in the oral cavity and without vibration of the vocal cords.

32
 /to/ In its execution there is no interruption, the air current
comes out continuously and with vibration of the vocal
cords.

It is performed with total interruption of contact of the

/t/ tongue with the teeth in the oral cavity, without vibration of
the vocal cords.

In its execution there is no interruption, the air current

/either/ comes out continuously and the vocal cords vibrate.

Source: D'Introno (1995). Current phonetics and phonology of Spanish.

d) allophone
Each phone produced undergoes variations in different ways conditioned by the phonic,
geographical and social context of the speaker/listener. Thus, the phone [s] of the string [m-
í-smo], followed by the voiced phone [m] is voiced in [m-í-zmo]. The allophone [z]
represents the voicing of the phoneme /s/. Allophones are based on the features of the
phone, but differ in the conditioned features they acquire in the context. In phonetic
transcription, allophones are represented in square brackets. (Guitar, J. 1996). So:
[s] normal deaf
Phoneme /s/ [z] voiced variation

e) Archiphoneme
Syllable-final position is a typical context of neutralizations. In phonological notation,
neutralizable elements are called Archiphoneme and serve to symbolize the common
features that phonemes have in neutralized position; They constitute the synthesis of several
phonemes under the same representation with a capital letter.
For example: the phonemes /b/, /p/ and /f/ lose their distinctive properties in syllable-
final position and are transcribed with a single phonetic symbol /B/ as in:
[nephthalene]
[nebtaline] /ne B talina/
[neptaline]

33
 In Spanish, symbols are distributed according to six articulatory zones: bilabial,
dental, alveolar, lateral, nasal and vibrating. Thus, the nasal, alveolar, voiced consonant /n/
is pronounced as /m/ labialized in [umbéso]; as /ņ/ dentalized in [tóņto]; as velarized /ŋ/ in
[téŋgo] or as palatalized /ñ/ in [káñča]. Neutralization is represented by replacing the
neutralized phonemes with the phonological element: the archphoneme /N/, phonologically
represents the neutralization of /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /ñ/. (D'Introno 1995).

1.2.5 allophonic distribution

The distribution of phones and allophones happens within the phoneme itself. The
mechanism is complementary distribution. According to this phenomenon, allophones of
the same phoneme mutually exclude each other in the same context; means that one
allophone cannot appear in the same environment where the other is realized; In other
words, they appear in certain positions and not in others, mutually exclusive. For example,
the phoneme /b/ cannot appear as a plosive [b] in intervocalic position, nor as a fricativized
[ß] in absolute initial position. (D'Introno 1995).
The following table provided by D'Introno (1995) serves as teaching material to work
with the characterization of the phonetic distribution of phones and allophones of Spanish
phonemes with diachronic and synchronic criteria.

SYMBOL MEANING
[ -] phonetic symbol
/-/ Phonological symbol
[: ] Sound duration symbol
[˗] Nasalization
. Joint advancement
It is done as
/ In every environment
#. absolute initial
.# Absolute final
v.-v Intervocalic position
.-v syllable initial
v-. syllable ending

34
 c[nas.] – c[nas.] Between nasal consonants
-v Initial of diphthong
v- Diphthong ending
-c[deaf] Before voiceless consonant
-c[sound] Before voiced consonant
-c[nasal] Before nasal consonant
-r- Contact with multiple vibrating
-x. Before veiling fricative.
-c. Stuck syllable.
-v. Free syllable.

1.3 Phonetic disciplines

Phonetics is the linguistic science that studies the specific sounds of language from
different perspectives: functional, articulatory, experimental, perceptual and acoustic.
(Martinez, E. 1986).

1.3.1 Functional phonetics

A communication system necessarily involves a limited number of elements and a
restricted number of features to make the exchange of messages between its users effective.
If we perceive the phone /s/ and its voiced allophonic variation [z], the voicing feature is
not relevant as in [ásno] and [ázno], where barely the human ear can distinguish the phonic
differences of voicing; Furthermore, the sonority feature does not imply a change in
meaning, which means that the feature [+sonority], in certain environments of the phonic
chain, is not functional, at least in Spanish. Therefore, functional phonetics studies phones
in their linguistic function and the distinction between them conditioned by the features
relevant to communication. (Guitar, J. 1996).

1.3.2 Articulatory phonetics

35
Most of the sounds of language are articulated in the oral cavity. Therefore, the movements
made by the articulatory organs constitute the fundamental basis for the description of
speech sounds. Each articulatory movement is a feature and the set of features gives
definitive shape to a language sound. Consequently, the central objective of articulatory
phonetics is to describe the articulatory movements of the speech organs in the production
of the sound signal .

1.3.3 Experimental phonetics

Experimental phonetics arises from observations in experimental laboratory situations. This
fact allows control of the factors that affect speech acts. The approach is interdisciplinary in
nature and psychology, sociology, biology, anthropology, physics, etc., provide evidence
(data, testimonies) for its study. Therefore, experimental phonetics studies the
relationships and connections between physiology and psychophysics; addresses the
process of production and perception of speech, the organization of the message at the
semantic level, the structuring of grammatical and phonological forms and the use of
memory banks . (Martinez, E. 1986). This discipline distinguishes two aspects:
2 Physiological : studies the articulatory aspects ordered by the brain and linked to
the work of the muscles, nerves, etc.
3 Psychophysical : studies the generation, transmission and reception of sound
waves linked to psychological processes. According to Petorino, experimental
phonetics is applied when, for example, the articulatory area of a sound pronounced
by a speaker is recorded using any procedure that records the palatal vault in a
palatogram; or when the researcher, with the help of the kymograph, oscillograph,
spectrograph or other similar device, detects the acoustic features of the sounds
emitted by the informant.

3.3.1 Perceptual phonetics

The human ear is capable of detecting any linguistic sound. Despite the fact that the organs
of speech, from the first years of life, have become accustomed exclusively to the
adaptations of the traditional sounds of the language, despite the fact that every language

36
uses a rigid and economical selection of sound, it cannot be leave aside the importance that
sounds acquire for the perception of words, accompanied by gestures, graphic signs, etc., as
essential as complementary elements of communication. (Martinez, E. 1986). For
perceptual phonetics , what makes understanding possible is the context and the situation,
through which users attribute identical (similar) meanings to the messages they emit. For
this to happen, both interlocutors must belong to the same linguistic community.

3.3.2 Acoustic phonetics

Acoustic phonetics is based on the physical description of phones. Articulatory habits play
a very important role in the linguistic identification of the acoustic waves emitted;
However, the data provided by acoustic phonetics is related to the human brain, both of the
speaker and the listener. In phonic production, acoustic phonetics is responsible for
describing the components that make up the complex sound wave of articulated sounds
(articulatory organs and brain), (organs of perception and brain), and establishing how
essential they are for their communicative recognition. . (Martinez, E. 1986).

SPEAKER LISTENER

ORGAN HEARING
BRAIN ARTICLE- ORGAN BRAIN
THORIUM

SOUND WAVES

Source: Martínez, E. 1986). Phonetics .

37
 3.3.3 Historical phonetics
Historical phonetics has as its primary objective the diachronic knowledge of the phonic
plane of the language. Therefore, it studies the Spanish language from its origin, Latin,
even before Latin, until its conversion into Castilian Romance, which will later be called
Castilian and later the Spanish language. It includes vulgar Latin and cultured Latin.

VERIFICATION OF LEARNING
I. Define the following terms:
1. Phonetics
2. Phonology
3. Syllabic process
4. Slipped
5. assimilation process
II. Phonetically transcribe the following words
Person envy

38
 Store trunk
Gather outside
Rheumatism issues
Opposition rinse
a) Determine phonic environments for vowel allophones
b) Formulate the corresponding rule for each vowel
III. In the following matrix, mark (+) the presence of the trait and (-) the absence.

Phones
Traits j w p t b and F eith x
er
Consonantal
Vocalic
Slipped
sonant
Occlusive
Fricative
Sonorous
Deaf
Serious
Sharp
Dense
Diffuse

IV. Make a table that contains all the criteria for classifying sounds.

Unit 2. phonetic changes

Basic Competence:

Describes and explains the linguistic evolution of Spanish taking into account the
functioning and variation of the sound elements of the language in synchronous
time and the geographical and sociocultural criteria of current speakers in Peru,
pointing out the phonetic changes in the standard speech of the community. .

39
 Basic content :

2.3 Linguistic evolution of Spanish

2.3.1 The native language in Hispania
d) Latin vulgar
e) Romance languages
f) The Castilian
2.3.2 Diachronic phonetic changes
e) Vocalism
f) Consonantism
g) Diphthongation
h) Metathesis
2.3.3 Types of diachronic phonetic changes

2.4 Sociolinguistic variations of Spanish in Peru

2.4.1 Comprehensive view of Spanish
2.4.2 Synchronous phonetic changes
c) Vocalism
d) Consonantism
2.4.3 Types of synchronous phonetic changes
j) Phonetic change by addition
k) Phonetic change due to deletion
l) Phonetic change by induction
m) Phonetic change due to diphthongization and monophthongization
n) Phonetic change due to accentual shift
o) Physiological phonetic change
p) Phonetic change by point of articulation
q) Phonetic change due to the action of the vocal cords

40
 r) Phonetic change due to the action of the uvula or bell

Assessment

Unit 2: phonetic changes

2.1 Linguistic evolution of Spanish

The history of the Peninsula before the Roman conquest contains a host of problems that
have not yet been resolved. All the problems are related to remains of human fossils,
artistic testimonies, myths, coins and inscriptions in unknown languages, names of tribes
and peoples, geographical designations and facts that need to find a phonetic explanation
for the linguistic variations that affected the communication of peoples. aboriginals.

41
2.1.1 The Latin language in Hispania
With the Roman civilization, the Latin language was imposed as the official language of
the empire. The reconquest of the kingdoms of Castile brought about the evolution of its
Castilian language, which dates back to Vulgar Latin, passing through the Romance
languages, until its consolidation as a Castilian language. Since the period of disintegration
of the empire, there was a first stage of common variation in the Latin language; Later, each
Romance language separated itself from the rest as it acquired linguistic, political and
ideological independence; Therefore, the initial phase of linguistic changes in Latin
followed a homogeneous process in all the disintegrated Romance languages. (Lapesa, R.
1980).
According to the author, linguists briefly describe some of the changes that affected
Vulgar Latin. However, it must be noted that some of these changes significantly affected
the entire Romance languages and were extensive enough to be considered of pre-
Romanesque origin. Later, in the middle of the Romanesque period, these variations were
expanded and completed following particular paths in each Romance branch and dialect.
Thus, for example, they explained the voicing of voiceless stop consonants between
vowels; as well as the fact that / p, t, k/ passed between vowels heard as voiced / b, d, g/
respectively, which only affected the western branch; This can be seen by comparing Latin
[ caput] with Spanish [ c abo] (in Galicia).
A crucial aspect of the phonetic evolution of languages is determining the chronology and
validity of changes. Thus < caudal> born from [ capitalem] requires that before the fall of
the pretonic vowel / i/, the voiceless plosive / p/ becomes intervocalic and voiced. This
word was found in the Middle Ages as [ cabdal] ; In this phase the consonant / d/ must
have appeared before the disappearance of the pretonic. Therefore, it is difficult to always
know in what order they happen and until what moment the phonetic changes are in force.
For example, the well-known loss of the initial fricative / f/ of Spanish should not have
been in force until between the 14th and 17th centuries. (Lapesa, R. 1980).
During the Roman Empire, people spoke Latin. There was cultured Latin that was the
heritage of the noble classes and the literati; and Vulgar Latin, the language spoken by the

42
people (soldiers, technicians, artisans, etc.), as well as non-literate people. Most of the
Spanish lexicon was born from this popular route.
a) Cultured Latin : it was the "written" language of the literary, it remained fixed by
Latin grammar, and that allowed it to remain unchanged over the passage of time.
Great authors of universal literature wrote in this language, such as the Latins Virgil,
Ovid or Cicero, but also Saint Thomas Aquinas or Dante. Cultured Latin,
furthermore, was the language in which the Roman legacy was transmitted: law,
science, philosophy, etc., being the language of culture in Europe for many centuries.
d) Vulgar Latin : it was the language "spoken" by the people, it had dialectal variants
such as: "Hispanic" Latin, "Galic" Latin, etc. Before the fall of the Roman Empire,
Vulgar Latin began to evolve more rapidly, until it was transformed into the Romance
languages that exist today under national languages.

The phonetic characteristic of Latin can be described from its vowel and consonant
system from Vulgar Latin:
Vowels (10): long: /a: e: i: o: u/; short: /aeiou/; Diphthongs: descending: /aw/, (oj, aj)
Consonants (14): stops: /pbtdkg/; fricatives: /fs/; affricates: there are none; nasals: /mn/;
lateral: /l/; vibrant: /r/; slipped: /jw/.
Letters: a /a/, /a:/; and /e/, /e:/; i /i/, /i:/, /j/; or /o/, /o:/; u /u/, /u:/, /w/; b /b/; c /k/; d /d/ f /f/; g
/g/; h Ø; l /l/; m /m/; n /n/; p /p/; q /k/; r /r/; H.H/; t /t/; v /u/, /u:/, /w/; x /ks/. Little used: /k,
j, w, y, z/. Also /u/ is incorporated late: first it alternates with v, until u is specialized for the
vowel and v for the slipped.

a) Romance languages
The Neo-Latin or Romance languages constituted an Indo-European branch of languages
closely related to each other and that historically appeared as an evolution of Vulgar Latin.
They include Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese and Romanian. There are Latin
similarities between Romance languages, but not all native speakers of different Latin
languages can understand each other, even though they share much of the same basic

43
vocabulary and various similar grammatical structures, but with significant phonological
changes. Among the characteristics that Romance languages share we have:
e) The Romance languages are all fusion languages.
f) Presence of a verbal inflection system with numerous forms and full of irregularities.
g) Formal presence of two possibilities for grammatical gender (masculine and
feminine), and two formal possibilities for number (singular and plural).

Finally, today's globalized world requires people to speak more than two languages.
The speaker has to choose the language that is most useful or interesting to him: learning a
second language will be one of the most incredible things that humanity will do in your life.

b) The Castilian
Castilian is a Romance language derived from Vulgar Latin. The history of the Spanish
language dates back to a period between the 10th and 11th centuries, when the so-called
pre-Roman languages existed on the Iberian Peninsula, such as Iberian, Tartessian, etc. In
addition to these languages, there were others such as Basque that has managed to survive
to this day in the Iberian provinces, influencing Castilian at the level of geographical
names, for example: Málaga, Hispania, etc.
The struggle for military power between the Andalusians and the Christian kingdoms
of Castile somewhat delayed the Spanish reconquest. The Kings of the Kingdom of Castile
extended their dominion across the Plateaus towards the South of Spain; They took their
languages with them. Upon achieving independence from Rome, Spanish emerged as the
national language. At first, Spanish was an innovative dialect, but later it became rather
slow and conservative; In the 13th century it became a language of culture; That was the
factor that consolidated Castilian as a language and gave rise to the emergence of the epic
poetry of the Minstrels such as the Cantar del Mío Cid, as well as the cultured poetry in
romance: Mester de Clerecía. Next comes writing and then the translation of didactic texts
arose.

44
 After the consolidation of the language of Castile as the official language of Spain, it
evolved into medieval Castilian; and, finally, it was consolidated as a Spanish language.
 Medieval Spanish l: Consonants (24): stops /pbtdkg/; fricatives: /β fsz ʃ ʒ/ and
affricates: /ts dz tʃ/; nasals: /mn ñ/; lateral: /l λ/; vibrant: /r r̃/; slipped (only as
allophones): /jw/. Geminates: non-vowels (5): /aeiou/; neuter diphthongs: /wi/, /ju/;
descendants: /aw, ew, (ow), aj, ej, oj/; Ascending diphthongs: /wa, we, wo, ja, je, jo/.
 Modern Spanish : Consonants (17/19). Plosives: /pbtdkg/; fricatives: /f (θ) syx/;
affricates: /tʃ/; nasals: /mn ñ/; lateral liquids: /l (λ)/; vibrant: /r r̃/; slipped (only as
allophones): /jw/. Geminates: no Vowels (5): /aeiou/; Diphthongs: neuters: /wi, ju/,
descending: /aw, ew, (ow), aj, ej, oj/, ascending: /wa, we, wo, ja, je, jo/.

2.1.2 Diachronic phonetic changes

The general framework of phonetic change is limited to the linguistic process that includes:
phonetic change, phonological change, analogical change and borrowings.
Diachronic phonetic change is characterized by being subject to phonic principles that
are met quite regularly in a geographical area or during a certain time or, in any case, in the
sounds spoken by the interlocutors under the same circumstances. But, in addition to these
laws, there are certain frequent, but not general, phenomena that, as a trend, influence the
phonetic evolution of words.
The phonetic hypothesis of a language maintains that speakers unconsciously omit
some of the phonetic details of the phonemes they use, but that they are not relevant to the
change in meaning . Thus, each native speaker controls his speech by comparing the sounds
he hears produced through a system of rules; It is assumed that some influencing factor
intervenes in the pronunciation of sounds such as plosive /d/, fricativized /ð/ or voiceless
/t/. These varied consonant pronunciations, far from changing the content of the message,
are only influenced by adjacent sounds, or by individual attitudes in the speech chain. The
most generalized pronunciation then becomes the standardized norm. (D'Introno, 1995).
According to the phonetic hypothesis, diachronic phonetic change is conceived as the
sound variations that phonemes undergo in one of their features when they are used in the
speech of individuals in their historical evolution. The bundle of features that makes the

45
oppositional segments (phonological entities) different is only phonic, that is, not relevant
for communication, partially affecting the structure of the word when it passes from one
language to another in its evolution or borrowing.
Phonemes have different phonetic variation in each language; like this: /p/ in Spanish
is generally [p] in all contexts; in some languages it varies to [b] voiced; Another phoneme
that undergoes variations is /d/ plosive, dental, voiced, which in Spanish has two phonetic
manifestations: /d/ plosive when it occurs after /m/, /n/, /ñ/; or fricativized /ð/ when it
occurs after a vowel or fricatives or liquids; for example: [aða], [abað], [desðe], [arðe], etc.
The sounds of a language change regularly as long as they are produced conditioned
by the same parameters, in the same phonetic conditions, in the same geographical area and
in the same period of time. (Lapesa, R. 1986). For example, the consonant /k/, followed by
vowels /a, e, o/ evolved differently, depending on its position in the word; It remained the
same in Spanish if it appeared in the initial position, example: [charta] > carta; but it was
voiced in /g/ in intervocalic position, example: [amicu] > friend; However, there are cases
like: [paucu] > little, without voicing when the previous vowel is not full but slipped
semivocalic.
Phonetic changes directly affect allophones and phonemes as a whole. In these
circumstances, what changes is not the total pronunciation of the word, but only some
phones that become allophones, without a change in meaning. Therefore, there is a
regularity in phonetic change: same phonic context, same time period and same
geographical area. This constancy of phonetic changes, which can be seen when comparing
some languages with others, made neo-grammarians think that true phonetic laws existed.
According to his thinking, whenever an exception to the regularity of changes occurred,
there should be a specific cause to explain it, such as the formal analogy with other voices,
the relationship or semantic crossing with other words, or the influence of a neighboring
dialect. (Guitar, J. 1996).
According to the author, when a language has a shorter orthographic history, there is
more likely to be a close correlation between the number of phonemes and the number of
graphemes. There is evidence in favor of the phonetic hypothesis that claims simplicity
(weak but common argument); Therefore, it is more economical to propose a limited

46
inventory of phonemes and some general rules of “pronunciation” (details of phonetics)
that suggest that speakers maintain thousands of phonetic details in their minds.

2.1.3 Types of diachronic phonetic changes

To easily describe the diachronic phonetic changes suffered by the transition from Latin to
medieval Castilian, and from this to modern Spanish, it is necessary to analyze the main
phonetic processes that could have occurred in the speech of the Spanish people. These
phenomena are not exclusive to the ancient language, since they are mechanisms that
continue to operate in the present and that today give rise to dialectal or social variants.
Although generally rejected in standard Spanish, they have great vitality in certain
geographic areas, social groups and language registers. Facilitating the understanding of
these phenomena and their current validity is done by giving examples of words from the
past that prevailed over the etymological form and others that are used today, but without
knowing that they will come to prevail.
The Spanish language, like the other Romance languages, comes from Vulgar Latin
transformed over the centuries. The evolution of Spanish can be reconstructed step by step
based on the Latin language system and important documents that reflect the evolution of
Spanish. The science in charge of its study is called historical grammar. The great scholar
was Don Ramón Menéndez y Pidal.
For example: look at the words:
/traca/ > trace
/down/ > down
/fazer/ > do

The changes made suggest that only the spelling has changed. But as the linguist
examines the older voices more deeply, that assumption weakens; Although many of the
words are familiar, the spelling is different; Consequently, it would be very difficult to
represent the current pronunciation. Likewise, it is possible to notice changes in vocabulary
and sentence constructions that, in a millennium of linguistic change, have radically altered
the physiognomy of Spanish; to such an extent that a Spanish speaker from the 10th century

47
could not understand another from the 20th century. Finally, conscious efforts have been
made to prevent changes in linguistic habits, however, the attempt has always failed.
Lapesa, R. (1986) talks about the phonetic irregularities that affect the timbre of
unstressed vowels. This phenomenon is subject to all the variations produced by the action
of neighboring sounds in the context of the phonic chain. In the past, the pronunciation
fluctuated between /mijor/ > mejor and /minguar/ > menguar; The same thing happened
with the consonants. The phonetic alterations, typical of oral spontaneity, exceeded the
limits of words and reached the phrase; Thus, the enclitic pronouns /me, te, de, le/ and
masculine /lo/, not the neuter, which were apocopated supported by participles, gerunds,
pronouns and nouns.

a) Phonetic changes that affect vowels

In Latin, vowels had a slower or longer pronunciation and a faster or shorter pronunciation.
This difference has already been lost in Vulgar Latin and, consequently, also in Spanish. In
its evolution into Spanish, long vowels have hardly changed; On the contrary, the briefs
have undergone numerous changes. These are the most important:
 The short and stressed vowel /o/ is diphthongized in /ue/, for example: [portam] >
door; [portum] > port; [mortem] > death.
 The short and stressed vowel /e/ is diphthongized in /ie/, for example: [terram] >
earth; [tempus] > time; [cervum] > deer.
 The short vowel /i/ became /e/, for example: [ordinare] > order; [intrare] > enter;
[imperatore] > emperor.
 The short, stressed vowel /u/ became /o/, for example: [corrumpere] > corrupt;
[angustum] > narrow; [surdum] > deaf.
 A short, postonic vowel /u/ disappears, for example: [calidum] > broth; [diabolum] >
devil; [stabulum] > stable

In the chronological situation there are other phonetic changes that affect the vowels
of Spanish.

48
 In words with three or more syllables, syncopation of the pre- and postonic vowels
tends to occur, with the exception of the vowel /a/. In plain words the fall of the
pretonic occurs. For example: [labore] > till. On the other hand, in the esdrújulas, the
postonic will fall.
 The final vowels are reduced, leaving it in a system of three degrees.
 The front vowels /e, i/, in front of or after the vowel, form a diphthong in which the
front vowel becomes the semivowel yod. This yod will be one of the elements that
most disturbs both the diphthong itself and the adjacent forms. Yod is also produced
as a result of the evolution of stressed /e/ into closed /e/. This explains many apparent
exceptions to the usual evolution as in [noctem] which evolved as follows: {noite],
[nojte] night; [tepidum], [tebio] > lukewarm.

b) Phonetic change due to diphthongization

Unlike Spanish, in Latin only three vowel groups are considered diphthongs: ae, au and oe.
The diphthongs evolved and the Latin system was reduced to three degrees in Spanish: a, e.
o, and sometimes /i/ coming from diphthong.

c) Phonetic changes that affect consonants :

There were important changes in the consonants that marked the difference in the evolution
of Romance into Spanish. Some were left almost intact, while others were profoundly
transformed. In general, the most stable position of the derailleur is in the initial position.
Among the changes that affected the evolution of the Spanish consonant were the
following:
1. The loss of the final consonant /m/ and /t/, of which there are symptoms in the
classical era. The numerous Latin final /m/ disappeared in Romance, almost without
leaving a trace, however, there are certain exceptions such as: [quem] > who;
[alichem] > someone. The final /t/ consonant disappeared; example: [ponit] > puts;
[mittit] > put.

49
2. In general terms, there was a simplification of the complex consonant groups, both
initial and interior of words. For example: [planum] > plain, [mensan] > table,
[insula] > island, etc.
3. In Spanish, the letter v (ve) and b (be) were identified; This phenomenon is known as
betacism . The etymological orthography of Spanish restored the original spelling,
but there are some exceptions such as: [aviolum] > grandfather, [vulter] > vulture.
4. Another fundamental change was the palatalization of the velars /k, g/ before the
previous vowel /e, i/. Example: [gentem] > gente (phoneme /g/ plosive, voiced by /x/
plosive and voiceless). Example: [decem] > ten, [crucem] > cross.
5. The loss of the initial /f/ consonant that affected only Spanish. Example: [farinan] >
flour, [fornun] > oven.
6. Voiceless stop consonants between vowels were voiced. Thus: [acutum] > acute,
[pacare] > pay, [caput] > cabo.
7. Voiceless stop consonants tended to disappear, but with many exceptions. Thus we
have: [digitum] > finger, [riyum) > river, [fidelem] > faithful.
8. The initial consonant /g/ before the previous vowel disappeared, sometimes leaving h.
Thus: [gelum] > ice, [germanum] > brother, [generum] > son-in-law.
9. The yod produced various changes: before nasal /ñ/, before /y, z/ after /t, ch/.
Example: [Hispania] > Spain, [rationem] > reason, [tructam], [truitam] > trout.
10. The liquid initial /s/ consonant takes an epenthetic cvowel /e/ such as: [spica] > spike.
The double intervocalic /s/, like the voiceless fricative consonant /x/, or the yod /j/
gave: [vessicam] > bladder, [dixi] > I said, [ciliam] > eyebrow.
11. Double nasals evolved into the palatal nasal /ñ/ as: [damnum] > damage, [signa] >
sign. Note that both /gn/ and (ng/ were two nasals as in: [tangere] > toñar.
Analogically, the geminated /l/ is palatalized as in [bellum] > bello, [gallum] >
rooster.
12. The coincidence in a word of several liquid /r, l/ often produces metathesis or
changes of position and timbre among themselves, as in [miraculum] > miracle,
[crocodylum] > crocodile.

50
 13. Palatalization of the velars before the previous vowel: this phenomenon consists of
the change in the point of articulation of the velars before the previous vowel /i, e/.
[xentem] > people /x/ > /g/ in Spanish (in Latin America and South /s/, /j/).

2.2 Sociolinguistic variations of Spanish

There is no doubt that indigenous languages have made their phonic influence felt in the
Spanish spoken in Peru. For this reason, the use of the Spanish language has been subject to
contrastive and allophonic phonetic variations that have allowed us to characterize the
changes that have occurred in both languages.

2.2.1 Comprehensive view of Spanish

The comprehensive vision of Spanish begins with the recognition of the Spanish language
as it is used orally within the population. In social terms, linguists recognize two modalities
of the Spanish language: Spanish practiced by speakers who have it as their mother tongue;
and Spanish for those who are native speakers of Quechua and Aymara, and who have
Spanish as a second language. (Escobar, A. 1978).
According to the author, today, countries are characterized by being multicultural and
multilingual, factors that constitute their linguistic reality. The purpose is to observe the
linguistic and cultural conditions that underlie the validity of the phonetic peculiarities that
make up the internal peculiarity, without neglecting, of course, the connection with the
Spanish-speaking reality in general. Therefore, it has been considered pertinent to carry out
the segmental phonetic analysis of the language because the vision of Spanish in Peru

51
conceives the existence of a social dialect or sociolect that consists of an interlanguage
called interlect; This is recognized as the Spanish spoken by people in full appropriation as
a second language, whose mother tongue is Quechua or Aymara. Consequently, the
interlect speaker will never be a coordinated bilingual, but rather a subordinate bilingual,
whose verbal behavior is identified by correlation with the phenomenon of certain
variables, namely:
 The Castilianization scale
 The period of schooling
 The time of exposure to Spanish
 The frequency rate of its use

2.2.2 Phonetic variation in Spanish

The social context plays a very important role in the phonetic changes of sentences in
Spanish. In the case of people with social position, geographical origin, chronological age
and cultural level, it occurs without omitting phonic reactions and without asking what it
means. Therefore, its study in an individual constitutes dynamic phonic events that occur
regularly in the positions of the sound in the phonic chain where it enters into
communicative functioning. When it comes to phonetic differences between Andean and
coastal Castilian, the incidence is much lower than among the popular classes. In general,
more similarity can be found, in certain points, between a farmer from Lima, Iqueño, and
an Andean peasant than between a lawyer from a certain law firm and a pastor from the
Seventh Church. (Escobar, A. 1978).

a) Vowel variations of Spanish

Spanish has a vowel system made up of five openings that give rise to five phonemes:
/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/. Allophonic variations are influenced by three aspects: situational
variation, geographical variation and linguistic variation.
 Situational variation : it is related to social context (sociolect); variability and less
differentiation between vowels occurs in spontaneous speech more than in reading.

52
 The speaker has the tendency to occupy the center of the space defined by the vowel
trapezoid; Vowels are the sounds that have less duration in spontaneous speech than
in reading; The possibility of elision of vowels depends on the speed of speech and
the style of speech .
 Geographic variation : the variability of sounds can occupy large geographic areas;
Linguists call phonetic change a dialect and the science in charge of its study is
dialectological phonetics, which studies the variation of sounds (language system)
depending on their geographical distribution (dialect). Among the phenomena related
to geographical variations of vowels we have:

The vowels open to mark the plural and the verbal person (by aspiration of the
following consonant).

Vowels, especially unstressed ones, become very weak or disappear.

Stressed vowels are lengthened.

The stressed vowels open more.

Unstressed vowels tend to be more centralized.
Vowels become palatalized or markedly velarized in contact with palatal or velar
consonants.

The vowels [e] and [o] in final position close in [i] and [u] respectively.

The vowels are pronounced with a high degree of tension.

All vowels are voiced, however they tend to be devoiced.

All vowels are sonant, but they can slide in certain positions forming a diphthong
with a vowel.

b) The consonantal variation of Spanish

53
Spanish has a consonant system made up of 24 phonemes, including stops, fricatives,
vibrates, laterals, nasals and affricate. Allophonic variations are influenced by aspects:
situational variation, geographical variation and linguistic variation.
Social variation is a phenomenon related to cultural identity. Many times, the social
and geographical situation determines the pronunciation of Spanish consonants,
highlighting their allophonic variations.
 Although the Spanish of Spain and the Spanish of America present varieties of
sounds, there are some features that are shared by practically all dialectal modalities.
This is what happens with yeísimo (with the generalization of a mid-palatalized
pronunciation) and with seseo (with a clearly predominant predorsal /s/).
 There are phonetic phenomena that are shared with cultured norms, such as, for
example: the aspiration of the phoneme /x/; or the weakening of consonants in
syllable-final position.
 Along with the general or widely used features that we have just mentioned, there are
other phonetic facts that give a personality of their own to the specific area in which
they are documented. This is the case of the vowel opening after the loss or
weakening of the final consonant; or the lengthening of stressed vowels.

c) Phonetic variations of suprasegmental elements

Suprasegmental elements refer to accent and intonation, the variation of which affects the
melodic patterns of Spanish. We have as an example the situational and geographical
variation:
 In all the dialects studied, both in declarative and interrogative sentences, the first
intonational peak occurs in the postonic syllable, not in the tonic syllable as
traditionally assumed;
 That first peak is always higher in interrogatives than in declaratives;
 The most distinctive and particular contours of the different dialects occur at the end
of the utterances and have to do, above all, with the place where the tonal inflection is
made in the toneme, whether in the stressed syllable itself or in the syllables
unstressed after her.

54
 Spanish, as a global system, has many more coincidences than real differences, that
is, the fundamental patterns remain constant in America and in Spain” (p. 375).

2.2.3 Types of synchronous phonetic changes

Synchrony deals with the study of sounds in the current context. There are certain
peculiarities in phonetic change that influence the phonetic evolution of words. Among the
main ones we have:

a) Phonetic changes by addition

Phonetic changes by addition consist of the increase of one phoneme or more at a certain
point in the chain: at the beginning, in the center or at the end of a word. We present the
main cases of addition:

 Epenthesis : consists of the addition of phonemes inside the word. For example:

/lamber/ Lick
/grampa/ Staple
/fideyo/ Noodle
/leya/ Read
/aiga/ Is
/koreya/ Belt
/haunted/ Haunted
/biriguela/ Smallpox
/tiyo/ Uncle

55
 /esteas/ You are

 Paragoge : consists of the addition of one or more phonemes at the end of the word.
For example:

/distes/ You gave

/this one to the/ This
/six/ Six
/nobody/ Nobody

Here we see a general error that consists of adding an /s/ to the past indefinite, second
person singular. For example:

/tubistes/ You saw

/moxastes/ you got wet
/you love/ You loved
/traxistes/ you brought

 Prosthesis : consists of adding phonemes to the beginning of a word. For example:

/gwebo/ Egg

56
 /shoot/ Shoot
/should/ Really
/asuxetar/ Hold
/enter/ Get in
/embarnize/ Varnish
/borrow/ Lend

b) Phonetic changes due to deletion

This is the phonetic phenomenon of loss of the phoneme in the structure of the word.
This type of alteration is described as the dropping or elision of phonemes. We present
the main cases of phonetic changes due to deletion:

 Syncopation: consists of the deletion of one or more phonemes within a word. For
example:

/lukma/ Lucuma
/seventeen/ Seventeen
/kero/ Wanna
/where/ Where
/teacher/ Teacher
/konsensia/ Awareness
/adreso/ Dressing
/doctor/ Doctor
/tota/ Cake
/mos/ Went

The loss of /d/ does not only occur in the speech of ordinary people: for example: /you
are in the kama/, /por swallow pecau/, /atatau/; but also in literary works, for example:
The tondero is agitated

57
 In all San Miguel de Piura
So much that has raised
A dead man is in his grave.

But in the endings /ido/, /odo/, the loss is less frequent. The /udo/ ending is always
preserved; You will never hear /kruo/.
 Apheresis : consists of the suppression or loss of the sound at the beginning of a
word. For example:

/ta/ This
/tonses/ So
/where/ Where
/little hand/ Sister
/iko/ Rich
/sekia/ Irrigation ditch
/breakfast/ Breakfast

We present some generalized cases of apheresis. Thus, the Spanish initial /a/
disappears in some voices such as:

/serin/ Sawdust
/sukarado/ Sugary
/sotea/ Rooftop

Similarly, the /e/ in initial position disappears, for example: /uropa/ > Europa. The
preposition /de/ is pronounced as /e/ especially if it comes after a vowel. For example:
/kabesaebenao/ > deer head

58
 /mesaeoino/ > pine table
/niskitaekarne/ > meat niskita

In the vulgar language of the coast, the verb estar loses its first syllable. The product
of this is the well-known phrase of assent: /also/ > okay
 Apocope : consists of the fall of one or more phonemes at the end of the word. It
generally happens with three phonemes /d/, /r/, /x/, /s/. The elision of plosive, dental,
sonorous /d/ on the coast even affects cultisms; However, in the mountains, educated
people pronounce it correctly. The phoneme /x/ fricative, velar, voiceless, at the end
of the word relaxes until it is completely lost. The same thing happens with vibrant /r/
which usually disappears in pronunciations of phrases like /poká/ > around here; For
its part, the alveolar, voiceless fricative /s/ also disappears on the coast and the
aspiration that replaces it never becomes the phoneme /x/. For example:

/watch/ Clock
/breast/ Mister
/chup/ Pacifier
/dok/ Doctor
/humpa/ Buddy
/press/ President
/teacher/ Teacher
/kapi/ Captain
/I will say/ Director
/micro/ Minibus
/cop/ Police

c) Phonetic changes by induction

59
Phonetic changes due to induction originate due to the influence that some phonemes exert
on others. In this case, these are variations conditioned by the context. See the word
/sepurtura/ > sepultura; As observed, the change from liquid, lateral /l/ to liquid, vibrating
/r/ has occurred, conditioned by the mode of articulation. Here the vibrating feature
influences the lateral phoneme. Induction can be done in two ways:

 By assimilation : Assimilation describes the situation in which a phoneme is more

similar to another neighbor that follows it. For assimilation to occur, the assimilated
sound has to occupy an adjacent position with respect to the influential sound in the
spoken chain; The effect it produces is the assimilation of a feature of the sound that
follows it.
For example: /me z of the year/ > me s of the year
The voiceless fricative /s/ phoneme occupies syllable-final position; but before the
voiced consonant it is voiced. Here, the conditioning sound is the voiced plosive
consonant /d/, and the sound that has assimilated the voiced feature is represented by
voiced /z/.
Assimilation can occur in two ways:
Regressive assimilation : the phoneme acquires similar characteristic features of the
phoneme that is located after the sound that changes; like this: in /elixir/ > choose
there is regressive assimilation because the vowel /i/ influences the vowel /e/, closing;
in /fulbol/ > futbol there is also regressive assimilation because the /t/ changes to /l/,
becoming lateralized.
Examples:

/dilikado/ Delicate
/telibident/ viewer
/binded/ Sold
/bilikoso/ Bellicose
/food/ Food
/mythed/ Tucked in

60
 /libreria/ Bookshop
/pinisilin/ Penicillin
/tennika/ Technique

Progressive assimilation : occurs when the assimilating element appears first. Thus,
in /beterraga/ > betarraga, the vowel /e/ influences the following vowel /a/; in the case
of /renko/ > rengo, the nasal consonant phoneme /n/ voices the consonant phoneme
/k/, converting it into voiced /g/.
Example :

/medeo/ Half
/feared/ Shy
/blessed/ Sold
/welcome/ Welcome
/bestedo/ Dress

 Dissimilation : it is more of a diachronic problem; It represents the action exerted by

one sound on another of the same word, with which it has all or some common
articulatory elements; consists of making him lose these common traits: [carcerce] >
prison; It can even make them disappear: [aratru] > plow. If it is a syllable that
disappears, the phenomenon is called haplology. Synchronically, it deals with
adjacent phonemes that can be differentiated: the affected phoneme becomes less
similar to the conditioning phoneme, for example, /marmor/ > marble where it is seen
that the phoneme /r/ has become /l/. There is also dissimilation with /frasada/ >
milled; This dissimilation tries to avoid the appearance of three repeated /a/.
 Metathesis : Represents the change of place of one or more sounds within a word. It
responds to the need to make the pronunciation simpler: [crocodile] > crocodile.

61
Although in many cases the formal reasons are not clear because the form with
metathesis is simpler than the form without metathesis. If the sound that moves
maintains contact with the sound that is grouped, etymologically it is a contact
metathesis; If two sounds change their respective places it is a double or reciprocal
metathesis: [periglo] > danger, [parabla] > word, or [miraglo] > miracle.

/redemption/ Melt
/redamar/ To spill
/plantufa/ Slipper
/redepent/ Suddenly
/redotar/ Defeat

These metatheses, with the exception of <slipper>, are common and unique to
cultured family speech; They are considered signs of low social extraction.
Examples:

/kuleka/ Broody
/delen/ Give it
/xerma/ Women
/grabiel/ Gabriel
/choborra/ Drunk
/kocholate/ Chocolate
/grone/ Black
/fercho/ Driver
/ponxa/ Japan

62
d) Phonetic changes due to diphthongization and monophthongization
Diphthongation and monophthongation are changes that affect vowels, producing glides.
 Diphthongation : Diphthongization consists of the vowel alteration within a syllable.
So instead of pronouncing a vowel, a diphthong is pronounced. For example:
/offending/ > offending. Another type of diphthongation affects two adjacent open
vowels; In this case, one of the open vowels closes and a diphthong appears, resulting
in the reduction of one syllable.
Examples:
/aurita/ > right now
/kuete/ > rocket
/trai/ > brings

 Monophthongization : Monophthongization consists of the loss of one of the

elements of the diphthong. The vowel or semiconsonant may drop. This phonetic
change is characterized by the suppression of sounds.
For example:
/fimos/ > we went
/eksilated/ > exiled
/xan/ > Juan
/agusto/ > Augusto
/aurelio/ > Aurelio
/aurea/ > Aurea

In some of these examples syncopation has occurred due to monophthongation; but in

the cases of <Aurelio> and <Áurea> apheresis occurred due to monophthongation.

63
 Example:
/feron/ > were
/beno/ > good
/physio/ > judgment
e) Phonetic changes due to accentual shift
Accent shift is the change in position of the accent throughout the spoken chain. Spanish is
characterized by flexibility in the position of the accent that is not fixed in the word, the
consequence of which is the change in meaning.
For example:
/ referee /, /ar bi tro/, / referee /
/de pó sito/, /depo si to/, /deposi tó /
/ se lebre/, /se le bre/, /sele bre /

f) Physiological phonetic changes

The basis for the complete explanation of phonetic changes lies in the knowledge of
phonetics, specifically its articulatory descriptions (point, mood, action of the vocal cords
and the uvula or bell). Among these changes we have:
 Occlusivization : phenomenon by which a phoneme is articulated as if it were a
plosive. In Spanish, the most notable case is the velar, fricative, voiceless phoneme
/x/ which is articulated as velar, plosive, voiceless /k/ in syllable-final position.
Example:
/relok/ > clock

 Fricativization : reverse process that consists of articulating a stop phoneme as a

fricative; a total interruption changes to a partial one. We present the main cases of
fricativization in Spanish.
The voiceless velar stop consonant /k/ is pronounced as a fricativized, voiceless velar
consonant /x/.
Example:
/bixtor/ > Victor

64
 /baxteria/ > bacteria
/araxnid/ > arachnid

In the Southern Andes and the Altiplano it is common to find the following
pronunciation:
/oxtabo/ > eighth
/texnica/ > technique

Another case of fricativization, common in the Andean region, occurs with the
multiple vibrating /ř/ which is realized as fricativized, predorsal, alveolar and is
represented with assimilated /ž/. The most notable case is the pronunciation of the
word <up>.
/ařiba/ > up
/kařeta/ > cart
/bařo/ > mud

 Lateralization: this phonetic change implies variation in the mode of articulation;

consists of the assimilation of the lateral trait.
For example:

/young lady/ Miss

/silent/ TRUE
/tulno/ Shift
/belde/ Green
/enkantala// will love
/release/ Luck
/lakel/ Raquel
/felcho/ fercho

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 Lateralization is frequently observed in migrant speakers of Asian origin. In coastal
Spanish speakers the variation of yeísimo is noted by mistake.
Example:
/sandiya/ > sandilla
/support/ > chicken
/gayina/ > hen
/yama/ > calls

Delateralization is a phenomenon that is heard very frequently among speakers of the

Peruvian coast. It consists of the loss of the lateral feature due to the vibrant feature.
For example:
/rash/ > rash
/sarsa/ > sauce

g) Phonetic changes by point of articulation

The point of articulation is the contact of the oral area with the articulating organs; We
must distinguish between active and passive organs. Through this articulatory modality,
sounds can be labial, dental, alveolar, palatal and velar; Depending on the point of
articulation, phonetic changes can be:
 Labialization : the change is characterized when the phoneme, through the action of
the lips, acquires the bilabial or labiodental feature. The most frequent cases are:
Phoneme /k/ loses its velar feature to become voiceless bilabial /p/. Example:
/abstract/ > abstract
//ekstrapto/ > extract
Phoneme /g/ is articulated as a voiced bilabial fricative allophone [ß]. Example:
/aßua/ > water.

 Lip dentalization : the change is characterized when the velar phoneme, fricative /x/
acquires the labiodental feature. The most frequent cases are:
The phoneme /x/ is realized as the labiodental phoneme /f/. Example:

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 /leak/ > play
/Fues/ > judge
 Alveolarization : the change is characterized by displacement of the point of
articulation. The bilabial /m/ phoneme changes to the alveolar /n/ phoneme. For
example:
/ibanos/ > we were going
/kronosome/ > chromosome
/koneta/ > comet

 Palatalization : the change is characterized because it affects the point of articulation;

The tongue tends to move towards the palatal area, producing the regressive
assimilation of alveolar /n/ with palatalized /ñ/. For example:
/boy/ > boy
/wildebeest/ > knot
/wayño/ > huayno
/jamarra/ > jacket
/darkness/ > darkness
/niece/ > grandson

 Velarization : the change is characterized because it affects the point of articulation;

The tongue tends to move towards the velar area, producing the assimilation of
velar /k/, /g/, /x/ with labialized /p/, /b/, /f/. For example:
/asektar/ > accept
/game/ > fire
/gueno/ > good

h) Phonetic changes due to the action of the vocal cords

Due to the action of the vocal cords, sounds can vibrate or not, producing loud or dull
sounds. Phonetic changes of this type can be:

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 Voicing : phenomenon that consists of the change of voiceless feature for loudness.
For example:
/kolumbio/ > swing
/secondary/ > secondary
/obtimo/ > optimal
/paradikma/ > paradigm
/kabsula/ > capsule
/eklibse/ > exclipse
 Deafening : phenomenon that consists of the loss of the loudness feature. In the
Andean areas of Peru, deafening of phonemes is common among uncoordinated
bilingual speakers. Example:
/apdomen/ > abdomen
/opxeto/ > object
/atskrito/ > attached
/estikma/ > stigma

i) Phonetic changes due to the action of the uvula or bell

The movement of the bell produces two types of phonemes: nasal and oral. In Lima
Spanish, the nasalization of the plosive consonant is frequent, voiceless velar /k/ in
syllable-final position and in front of /n/. Example:
/tanna/ > Tacna
/tennika/ > technique

In popular Lima speech, the use of the word <ñanga>, equivalent to “lie,” is common.
This type of nasalization has occurred due to the evolution of the Quechua word /llaqa/,
which became /anga/, /janga/ until it reached <ñanga>. Another similar process occurs with
/peñiskar/ < pinch. As can be seen in all these phenomena, the assimilation, delateralization
and nasalization of phonemes has occurred. Example:
/ammosphere/ > atmosphere

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 /admirable/ > admirable
/beninno/ > benign
/else/ > sign
V. Didactic application

5.1 Informative data

5.1.1 School :
5.1.2 Specialty : Spanish language and literature
5.1.3 Issue : Phonetic changes
5.1.4 Duration : 90 minutes
5.1.5 Date : 19-06-2018
5.1.6 teacher : Hilda YUCRA VARGAS

5.2 Didactic unit

5.2.1 Competencies
Describes and explains the nature, structure and functioning of THE sound elements of the
Spanish language in its universal and particular features, taking into account the standard
speech of the community.

5.2.2 Content

Conceptual: Phonetic change: historical, geographical and social criteria

Procedural:
- Look at the text written on the board.
- Read the transcript aloud
- Listen carefully to the variation of sounds
- Systematize phonetic changes

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 Assessment: recognizes the historical, dialectal and social variation as a way of
pronunciation of your social group.

5.2.3 Methodology
The methodology used is contrastive analysis for this case of linguistic description.
Students work directly under the supervision of the teacher.

5.2.4 Teaching materials : plates, offprints, etc.

5.2.5 Assessment

5.3 Learning session

MOMENTS PROCEDURES MEDIA AND ASSESSMENT

MATERIALS

MOTIVATION:
Criteria:
The students read the text presented by the
knowledge,
teacher. Then they pay attention to the procedures and
assessments
sounds and their relationship with the
START
spelling as they read the text. Colored
marker, acrylic
board
Hello! My name is Valentin, I am
eight years old. I live with my
grandmother; she raises many
chickens; My grandfather died last
year […]. And well, whatever, she's
TECHNIQUES:
my mom and I miss her a lot. […].
Survey
COGNITIVE CONFLICT
Are the students' pronunciations the same?

Do you clearly perceive the features of the INSTRUMENTS

phoneme /y/, fricative, palatal, and the
20 item
lateral phoneme /ʎ/, palatal? questionnaire

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 Do you know what yeism and lleism are?

They phonetically transcribe the text

written on the board.

/wave/! /llomeyámoßaleņtín/
/téŋgo:choaños/ /bíßokonmiaguéla/;
/eʎakríamúchospóyos/;
/myagelosdiedlastyear/ […].
/guéno/, /séakomoséa/,
/élyaezmimamá/
/iʎolaextráñomúcho/. […].
DEVELOPMENT
Students read the transcription
emphasizing the pronunciation of the
phonemes /y/, /ʎ/, /b/, /g/, /k/, /z/, etc.

Students identify phoneme variation by

establishing their allophones.

Students determine phonetic changes and

describe their articulatory properties.

Students show the intention to differentiate

the sounds /y/ and /ʎ/.

They systematize the main phonetic

changes in the pronunciation of speech.

ASSESSMENT

They answer a written exam of 20

questions about phonetic changes.

TRANSFER
EXIT
They listen to the standardized speech of
their peers and become aware of phonetic
changes.

METACOGNITION:

They become aware of the procedures of

phonetic change: historical, dialectal and
social.

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5.4 Learning phonetic changes
The students concluded that the topic on phonetic variation of the coastal inhabitants of
Peru, related to consonants and vowels, is not exhausted solely with the proposed phones.
Teachers and students need more bibliographic contributions, more consultations and the
creation of new didactic proposals. Therefore, the teaching-learning process is not
exhausted, since the teacher needs to apply the activity in class to know what the students'
reaction will be so that the activity really meets its objectives. The teacher also wants the
students to have, during the course, opportunities to learn about other variations within
Peruvian Spanish.
This work is the first effort, whose objective was to present a simple didactic
proposal, which allows us to think about future work, with new findings, with other groups
of students who speak the Spanish language. We thought that this work was interesting, due
to the fact that the student learns by doing and the teacher teaches by speaking Spanish. Just
as we live in a region where it is important to “establish good regional communication, it is
also important for the student to distinguish between standard pronunciation and variations
caused by historical, geographical and social factors to be clearly aware of the phonetic
changes and be able to correct their pronunciation. .

The method to be used is audio-visual and the procedures followed for sound
recognition and production skills are as follows:
a) Listen carefully to the sound being learned : The teacher must
know the arrangement of the speech organs in the production of this or that phoneme.
This way you can avoid incorrect pronunciation when speaking in class.
b) Recognize the articulatory movements that characterize it : It
means that both the teacher and the student must become aware of the correct

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 articulatory position of the phonemes and, based on this, distinguish the phonic
similarities and differences of the phonemes of Spanish.
c) Producing the sounds of language : This means executing the
articulation by placing the organs in the correct position of the phoneme being
pronounced.

The criterion of idiomatic correctness in pronunciation is the problem faced by

teachers and students. Faced with a multicultural and multilingual society, full of dialectal
and socio-lectal pronunciations, one cannot choose which pronunciation to choose as a
teaching-learning model; However, it is recommended that they adopt the Spanish-
American pronunciation that identifies, for example, the letters c, s, z in the same
phoneme.
The most common pronunciation defects in the speech of teachers and students
correspond to the deformation and deletion of the final /s/; to the defective articulation
of /r/, to dyslalic manifestations, to the confusion of lisps with seseos, to cacophonies,
yeísimo and lleísimo, etc.

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 VI. Synthesis

The exposition of the monograph does not cover all the problems related to phonetics. For
this, there are the theories of phonetic changes offered by Juan Felipe García Santos (2002)
“Phonetic change and Acoustic phonetics”. So I am going to limit myself to pointing out
what I believe are the most general and accepted principles in this regard today. No one
today can dedicate themselves to historical phonetics without taking phonology into
account. Therefore, structuralism is still valid at least in this aspect. Confusing phonetic
change with phonological change leads to error. Another thing is the consideration that
every phonological change has previously been a phonetic change, which can undoubtedly
be discussed. But we cannot consider in the same way the evolution of -/U/ which is
realized as /d/ or the pronunciation of /i/, in the case of /veni/ > vine, since the first change
affects the phonological system and the second no.
Regarding phonetic changes, it seemed little could be added to what was actually
presented by diachronic scholars of the evolution of Spanish. The studies of Menéndez
Pidal, Amado Alonso and Emilio Alarcos seemed sufficient. It is true that the first two,
neo-grammatical historicists, did not manage to assimilate the achievements of
structuralism in their studies, which Alarcos Llorach did. For decades, the manuals of Don
Ramón and Alarcos were the most used throughout the Hispanic world because they were
practically the only ones in existence. Certainly, there was Vicente García de Diego's
Spanish Historical Grammar. Only in 1986 did the book “History of the Spanish Language”
appear, written by Lapesa, Rafael, which was a very valuable manual for researchers.
We can conclude that phonological changes are regular and phonetic changes are, if
not sporadic, irregular. In the same way, no one estimates phonetic variation without taking
into consideration the other integrating elements of the linguistic sign: I am referring to
morphosyntax and semantics. The examples are in everyone's mind, but finally, to name a

74
few, I would mention the analogical and regularizing tendencies of the verb, which mean,
for example, that the final [e] of the third person singular of the verbs is maintained in
phonic contexts in which it should have fallen - and in fact it fell.
Everyone also seems to agree that, in a given synchronicity, different evolutionary
tendencies coexist: some conservative and others innovative. Thus we have the aspiration
of -/s/ must have been a general tendency of ancient Spanish that a conservative reaction
eliminated from the Spanish of the northern plateau; Another case is the aspiration and loss
of the initial Latin /f/. It is aspirated and can get lost in Spanish. Generally, although not
always, in the initial situation, but also in intervocalic situations, the loss occurs for some
due to social or geographical influence, and for others due to a mere acoustic process of a
bilabial realization of /f/.

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 VII. Critical appreciation and suggestions

Phonetic changes have been studied diachronically, conditioned by the historical evolution
of languages. However, there are other criteria such as conditioned changes and
spontaneous changes.

Conditioned phonetic changes are generally called systematic changes . They tend
to be characterized by occurring in precise contexts; It manifests itself in the variation that a
given phoneme undergoes, due to the influence that other nearby or adjacent phonemes
exert on it. Likewise, the fact that it occurs within certain linguistic contexts means that this
change does not occur at random. In this type of phonetic changes, Linguistics in turn
points out three different subtypes, which are classified according to the variation suffered
by the altered phoneme. Below, each of the types:
 Assimilation: this type of change corresponds to a process through which a sound or
class of sounds becomes closer in its realization to a neighboring sound or sounds,
modifying its articulation. It occurs when a phoneme acquires the features of adjacent
phonemes; Consequently, the phoneme assimilates foreign features and abandons its
own features to assume those of those adjacent phonemes that exert influence on it,
but without significant consequences. Examples of these changes are:
Voicing : voiceless consonants are voiced,
Fricativization: Stop consonants are fricativized in certain positions of the sound
chain. [Habere] > have
Palatalization: the approach is through the point of articulation as the velarized
consonant /n/ [ ŋ] in contact with the velar sound /g/. /te ŋ go/ < I have; the member
of a diphthong that will give rise to a series of palatal consonants when approaching
the point of articulation of the palatal vowel. Example: [seniore] > sir, [filiu] > son.
In current Spanish, the palatalization process continues to operate. Example:
[Antonio] > toño (hypocoristic).

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 The assimilation of Latin double consonants was soon eliminated in Castilian. For
example, the Latin sequence /nn/ gave rise to the palatal consonant /ñ/ as in [annu] >
year. The same thing happened with /ll/, which became the palatal /y/ in Spanish,
which was a product of assimilation.

 Dissimilation: This is a phonetic change opposite to assimilation. Mechanism by

which a sound loses a certain articulatory feature that it shares with another nearby
sound. This type of phonetic change is of a conditioned or systematic nature and
occurs when in a word there are two phonemes that are quite close, causing the
language to seek to break said equality, generally using deletion. The change can
cause the dissimulated sound to change into a different one.
Examples:
[vicinu] > neighbor
[arbore] > tree
[homine] > man
[aratru] > plow

There is also a phonetic change in vulgarisms. Example: [poorness] > problem.

[extension] > extension.

 Matathesis: this procedure consists of changing the position of a sound within the
word, generally it is the liquid consonants /r, l/. Example: [crepare] > break. This type
of change that occurs inside a word, when speakers – in favor of a much simpler
pronunciation – choose to change some of their phonemes, either by exchanging
places with some phonemes, as in the case of Gabriela > Grabiela , or suppressing
some of the phonemes that make said pronunciation more difficult, as for example in
the case of the word [crocodylo] > crocodile.
Some cases of metathesis that have been consolidated are presented; while others
consider vulgarisms:
[dentific] > toothpaste

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 [Grabiel] > Gabriel
Sometimes an exchange of similar sounds occurs which is called Reciprocal
Metathesis. Examples:
[miraclo] > miracle
[parabla] < word

Spontaneous phonetic changes can also be so-called non-systematic changes. These

changes occur randomly and without a specific context. These types of phonetic changes
take place in some specific words; Instead of occurring due to the adjacency of phonemes,
they usually originate based on historical events, or fashions assumed by the linguistic
community where they occur. Sometimes, they are temporary in nature, that is, the group of
speakers adopts them for a time, forgetting them later, and without this variation becoming
fixed in the Language, however they can constitute definitive changes, which do become
established in the Language. language.

In relation to the phonetic changes studied, it is suggested that not only the words and
their variations be analyzed, but also their change in the phrase and in the paradigm:

Changes in the phrase :

Simple sound change: /p/ for [b] or [ß]; for example: [CAPITA] > head.
Loss of a sound: /d/; for example: [FRIGIDU] > cold.
Adding a sound: [ b ]; for example: [HOMINE] > (omne) > man.
Reduction of two adjacent sounds to one: GN -> [ ñ ] PUGNU -> fist.
Undoubling of one to two adjacent sounds: /o/ in [ we ]. Example: [OVU] > egg-

Changes in the paradigm :

Change in the features of a phoneme: I -> [ i ], example: /LIBERE/ > free.

78
Change in the features of a paradigm: -PP- -> [ p ], example: /OPPONERE/ > oppose; [p],
example /CAPITA/ > head; [b] which is realized as [β], example /BIBERE/ > drink.
Creation of new phonemic distinctions: K -> [ ts ] VINCERE -> vençer; [dz] PLEASURE <
pleasure,
Loss of phonemic distinctions (neutralization): [ ʃ ] example [ ʒ ] female -> [x]

Changes in the paradigm are the consequence of changes in the phrase. But not all changes
in the phrase affect the paradigm.

V. Bibliographic reference

79
Alarcos, E. (1995). Spanish phonology . Madrid: Editorial Gredos.

Cortes, A., Ortes, A. (1992). General Linguistics . Spain: Editorial Cátedra.

D'Introno, F. (1995). Current phonetics and phonology of Spanish . Spain : Editorial

Cátedra.

Escobar, A. (1978). Sociolinguistic variations of Spanish in Peru. Peru problems 18. Lima,
Peru: Editorial Institute of Peruvian Studies.

Gil and Gaya, S. (1978). Elements of general phonetics . Spain: Editorial Gredos.

Guitar, J. (1996). Spanish and Hispanic American phonology . Lima, Peru: Educare
Editions.

Quilis A: (1981). Spanish phonetics phonology course . Spain: SCIC publishing house

Navarro, T. (1974). Spanish pronunciation manual . Spain: CSIC Publishing, Spain.

Lapesa, R. (1980). History of the spanish language . Madrid, Spain: Gredos.

Martínez, E. (1986). Phonetics. Barcelona, Spain: Editorial Teide.

Ramirez, L. H. (1996). Structure and functioning of language . Lima, Peru: Editorial

Derrama magisterial.

VI. Conclusions

80
 1. Phonetic changes in general should be studied with a theoretical basis of articulatory
and historical phonetics and diachronic and synchronic phonology. Phonetic science
deals with the study of speech; and phonology, of language. Diachronic phonology
studies the changes related to the evolution of Spanish, from its pre-Romanesque
origins.

2. Phonetic changes are approached from a synchronic perspective, taking into account
interculturality and multilingualism. In this case, the situational context manages the
migratory factor of the populations that go down to the coast or vice versa; and the
geographical distribution determines the prevalence of certain dialectal features of
Spanish in Peru, a product of linguistic contact.

3. Interlect is the linguistic register that characterizes the phonetic variation related to
the social situation of speakers whose mother tongue is Quechua, Aymara or
indigenous languages of the jungle, the basis for the description of the phonetic
variations produced in Spanish.

4. The sociolect addresses linguistic variation from the social perspective of Spanish
speakers. This linguistic record presents the characteristics of the masses culturally
defined according to their education and professional training.

VII. Annexes

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82