Chapter 4

Noise and Low-Noise Amplifiers

1
 Spectral Density of Thermal Noise (Johnson Noise)
Two approaches can be used to derive the spectral distribution of thermal noise:
1. The thermal velocity distribution of the charge carriers is used to calculate the time
dependence of the induced current, which is then transformed into the frequency domain.
2. Application of Planck’s theory of black body radiation.
The first approach clearly shows the underlying physics, whereas the second “hides” the physics by
applying a general result of statistical mechanics. However, the first requires some advanced concepts
that go well beyond the standard curriculum, so the “black body” approach will be used.
In Planck’s theory of black body radiation the energy per mode
So at low frequencies the
spectral density is independent
of frequency and for a total
and the spectral density of the radiated power bandwidth B the noise power
that can be transferred to an
external device

This is the power that can be extracted in equilibrium

2
 Thermal Noise in Resistors
To apply this result to the noise of a resistor, consider a resistor R whose thermal noise gives rise
to a noise voltage Vn . To determine the power transferred to an external device consider the
circuit
Spectral noise voltage density:

The power dissipated

in the load resistor RL:

The maximum power

transfer occurs when
RL = R, so Spectral noise current density:

Since the maximum power

that can be transferred to RL is kTB ,

Power of the noise source: 3

Shot noise
A common example of noise due to number fluctuations is “shot noise”, which occurs
whenever carriers are injected into a sample volume independently of one another.
Example: current flow in a pn junction of a semiconductor diode (emission over a barrier)

Spectral noise current density:

Shot noise does not occur in “ohmic” conductors. Since the number of available charges is not
limited, the fields caused by local fluctuations in the charge density draw in additional carriers to
equalize the total number.

Shot noise plays an important role in BJTs since they consist of pn junctions (especially for the
forward biased base emitter junction). Usually, the shot noise of FETs is very small since there
are no relevant pn-junctions.

4
Flicker noise or 1/f noise
Flicker noise or 1/f noise or excess is a kind of number fluctuations in carriers. Charge can be
trapped and then released after a characteristic lifetime 𝜏. Typically, the power spectral density
of 1/f noise is inversely proportional to frequency:
𝑑𝑃𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 1
∝ 𝛼 typically 𝛼 = 0.5 – 2
𝑑𝑓 𝑓
The 1/f noise is dominant at low
frequencies, beyond a certain frequency
(corner frequency) thermal noise is
dominant. The effect of 1/f noise can usually
be ignored in RF band. An exception is in
the oscillators, where 1/f noise can
modulate the output signal, producing or
increasing phase noise. The 1/f noise is also
important in direct down-conversion
receivers, as the output signal is close to
DC.

5
Noise Modeling for Bipolar Transistors
Small-signal equivalent circuit of BJT at high frequencies (without noise):

𝑟𝑏 = 𝑟𝑏𝑏′ , 𝑟𝜋 = 𝑟𝑏′ 𝑒 , 𝐶𝜋 = 𝐶𝑏′ 𝑒 , 𝐶𝜇 = 𝐶𝑏′ 𝑐

BJT with base shot noise, collector shot noise, and thermal noise at 𝑟𝑏 :

6
Noise Modeling for Bipolar Transistors

Small-signal equivalent circuit of BJT with noises:

7
Noise Figure
Considering an amplifier with power gain G: Si S0
G

where Si is the input signal power, S0 is the output signal power

Noise factor definition:

This factor shows how much the signal-to-noise ratio is degraded through the system
where N0(total) is the total noise at the output. If N0(source) is the noise at the output originating at the
source, and N0(added) is the noise at the output added by the electronic circuitry, then we can write:

Noise figure (dB):

8
Noise Figure of An Amplifier

All internal noise sources in the circuit are modeled into a series noise voltage source vn and a
parallel current noise source in placed in front of a noiseless amplifier with current gain Ai.
Input current is split between the input impedance and the source admittance YS with a ratio α.

Noise factor:
9
 Noise Figure of An Amplifier
In general, in and vn will not be correlated
with each other, the current in will be
partially correlated with vn and partially
uncorrelated. We can expand both the
current and voltage into these two explicit
parts:
𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑢 , 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑣𝑐 + 𝑣𝑢
The correlated components : 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑌𝑐 𝑣𝑐
YC is the correlation admittance
The noise factor can now be written as:

Noise figure is not only dependent on the internal noise parameters, but it also depend the external
source impedance ZS or YS (GS , BS) 10
Minimizing Noise Figure for Amplifier

GS and BS can be chosen to the following conditions for minimum noise

11
 Noise Figure of An Amplifier (simplified)
If 𝑣𝑢 is ignored:

𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑢 , 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑣𝑛

The correlated components : 𝑖𝑐 = 𝑌𝑐 𝑣𝑛

YC is the correlation admittance

𝑖𝑢2 + 𝑌𝑐 + 𝑌𝑠 2 𝑣𝑛2
𝐹 =1+ 2
𝑖𝑛𝑠

2 2
𝐺𝑢 + 𝐺𝑐 + 𝐺𝑠 + 𝐵𝑐 + 𝐵𝑠 𝑅𝑛
𝐹 =1+
𝐺𝑠

12
 Example: Noise Parameters of An Amplifier
! NEC710
# GHZ S MA R 50
2 .95 -26 3.57 157 .04 76 .66 -14
22 .60 -144 1.30 40 .14 40 .56 -85
! NOISE PARAMETERS
# FREQ NFmin dB |Gammaopt| Ang(Gammaopt) rn
4 .7 .64 69 .38
18 2.7 .46 -33 .40
Zs = 50 Ohm

13
 Equivalent Input Referred Noise Model for BJTs

≈
𝑟𝑏 ≪ 1

Short Base circuit:

Thermal noise in 𝑟𝑏 :

Base shot noise:

Open Base circuit:
Collector shot noise:

14
Equivalent Input Referred Noise Model for BJTs

𝐼𝐵 2 𝑉𝑇 + 𝑌 2 𝑟
+ 𝑌𝑐 + 𝑌𝑠 𝑠 𝑏
2𝑉𝑇 2𝐼𝐶
𝐹 =1+ 15
𝐺𝑠
 Noise Figure and Bias Current in BJTs

𝐼𝐵 2 𝑉𝑇 2
+ 𝑌𝑐 + 𝑌𝑠 + 𝑌𝑠 𝑟𝑏
2𝑉𝑇 2𝐼𝐶
𝐹 =1+
𝐺𝑠

At low currents, collector shot noise will

dominate and noise figure will improve
with increasing current. However, the
effect of base shot noise also increases
and will eventually dominate. Thus, there
will be some optimum level.

16
Example: Noise Model of an BJT
f = 1e9;
Ic = 50e-3;
VT = 25e-3;
beta = 100;
rb = 0;
Cpi = 20e-12;
rpi = beta*VT/Ic

17
 Noise Figure of a Multi-Stage System

The output signal S0 is given by:

The total output noise is:

The output noise due to the source is:

The formula shows how the gain of preceding stage causes the reduction in noise figure effect for a
stage. For this reason, only one low-noise stage is often designed at the front of the system.

18
Example: Noise Figure of a Multi-Stage System

G1_dB = 10dB
G2_dB = 5dB
G3_dB = 20dB

NF1_dB = 2dB
NF2_dB = 5dB
NF3_dB = 5dB

19