Water Transport and Distribution

Summary Chapter 4 – THE DESIGN OF WATER TRANSPORT AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

Nemanja Trifunović
Water Transport and Distribution
Chapter 4B:
THE ENGINEERING DESIGN OF WT&D SYSTEMS
Pipe Materials and Appurtenances
Engineering Design of Storage and Pumps
Standardisation and Quality Assessment

Nemanja Trifunović, PhD, MSc

Associate Professor of
Water Supply Engineering
IHE-Delft Institute for Water Education
n.trifunovic@un-ihe.org
Drinking Water Pipe Materials in NL
Source: VEWIN

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Pipe Materials in WS System of Belgrade (Serbia)
Source: BWS, 2015

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Average Pipe Age in WS System of Belgrade (Serbia)
Source: BWS, 2015

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Problems of Inadequate Material

• frequent interruptions of supply

• increased water and energy losses
• deterioration of water quality
• shorter pipe lifetime
• expensive maintenance of the system

PIPE CLASSIFICATION:
• rigid: cast iron (CI), asbestos cement (AC), concrete,
• semi-rigid: ductile iron (DI), steel,
• flexible: polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE),
glass reinforced plastic (GRP).
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Metallic Pipes (in US)
CHARACTERISTIC CI Lined DI Steel Galvanised Copper
Steel tubes
Internal corrosion resistance Poor Good Poor Fair Fair
External corrosion resistance Fair Moderate Poor Fair Fair
Cost Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Specific weight High High High Moderate High
Life expectancy High High High High High
Primary use T/D* T/D T/D T/D S
Tapping characteristics Fair Good Good Good Good
Internal roughness Moderate Low Moderate Moderate Low
to High to High to High
Effect on water quality High Low Moderate Moderate Moderate
to High
Equipment needs Moderate High Moderate Moderate Low
Ease of installation Low to Low to Low to Low to Moderate
Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate
Joint water-tightness Fair Very good Very good Fair Good
Pressure range (mwc) NA 100-250 Varies NA Varies
Diameter range (mm) NA 80-1600 100-3000 NA <50
Ease of detection Good Good Good Good Good
*T-transport, D-distribution, S-service connections.
Source: Smith et al., 2000

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Non-Metallic Pipes (in US)
CHARACTERISTIC AC Reinforced PVC PE GRP
Concrete
Material category Concrete Concrete Plastic Plastic Composite
Internal corrosion resistance Good Good Good Good Good
External corrosion resistance Good Good Very good Very good Good
Cost Low Moderate Low Low High
Specific weight Moderate Moderate Low Low Low
Life expectancy Moderate High Moderate Moderate High
Primary use D* T D S/D Storage
Tapping characteristics Fair Fair Poor NA NA
Internal roughness Low to Low Low Low Low
Moderate
Effect on water quality Low Low to Moderate Low Low
Moderate
Equipment needs Moderate High Low Low Moderate
Ease of installation Moderate Low to Moderate High Low to
Moderate to High Moderate
Joint water-tightness Good Good Good Poor NA
Pressure range (mwc) 70-140 Max. 160 Max.160 Max.140 NA
Diameter range (mm) 100-1100 300-4000 100-900 100-1600 NA
Ease of detection Poor Fair Poor Poor Poor
*T-transport, D-distribution, S-service connections. Source: Smith et al., 2000

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Scrap of Old CI Pipes Collected for Recycling

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Environmental Aspects of Pipe Materials – Emissions

Pipe production Emission into air Pollution of water Solid waste

CI, steel CO2 Sulphur Heavy metals
SO2 Ammonium
NOx Phenol, Cyanide
Fluoride
Lead, Zinc
Chloride
AC AC fibres
PVC SO2,NOx Vinyl Chloride
Chlorine
Vinyl chloride
GRP Heavy metals Hydrocarbon
Acids
Source: van den Hoven et al., 1993

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Pipe Joints - Classification

Similar to the pipe classification, joints are classified as:

• rigid: welded joints, flanged joints
• semi-rigid: gland joints
• flexible: spigot and socket joints

Standardisation of joints does not really exist. It is wise to

limit the choice of joints to a few types; mixing different
manufacturers and models may create stocking and
repair difficulties.

Poor jointing is often a major source of leakage. Hence,

special attention should be paid to provide water
tightness and protection from corrosion.

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Welded Joints – Steel Pipes (protected with PE sleeve)

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 Butt Fusion Welding Equipment

Manufacturer: Ritmo Manufacturer: Hy-Ram

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Flanged Joints

Applied wherever a need for temporary disconnection occurs (pumping stations,

cross-connection chambers, etc). Connection bolts allow for quick work while the
rubber ring inserted between the flanges enables a watertight connection. Mostly
used on metal pipes but also available with PE pipes, making the connection of
these materials possible. Corrosion of the bolts may be a concern if the pipe is
laid in aggressive soil.
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Push-in and Gland Joints

Gland joint

Manufacturer: Saint-Gobain
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Fittings for PE Pipes

Applied for a change in pipe

diameter and/or material,
pipeline direction, or when
valves, water meters or
hydrants have to be installed.

Various materials can be mixed.

Leakage can be an issue.

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Fittings for DI Pipes

Manufacturer: Saint-Gobain
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Pipe bend for PVC Pipes

More space needed

(excavation costs!).

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Fittings for Different Pipe Materials (PE, DI, PVC)

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Gate Valves for Pipe Section Isolation (Valve Blocks)

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Butterfly Valves with Horizontal and Vertical Axis

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Non-Return (Check) Valves
Also known as check-, retaining- or reflux
valves. Allow flow in one direction only. An
opposite flow direction causes the valve to
close and remain closed until the flow is re-
established in its original direction.

Hence, these valves operate in an on/off

position, either fully closed or opened by the
flow itself.

The non-return valves are installed in

pumping stations (discharge pipes) as back-
flow prevention. Sometimes they may be
found on distribution pipes or as a part of
the service connection.
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Float Valves (Butterfly Valve)

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Pressure Reducing Valves (PRV)
Control too high pressure in isolated parts
of networks. When the pressure upstream
of the valve grows above the preset value,
the valve will start closing until the
downstream pressure is equal to the preset
pressure.
If the upstream pressure is below the preset
value, the valve operates as fully opened.
Also operate as non-return valves when the
downstream pressure is higher than the
upstream pressure.
Equipped with upstream and downstream
pressure gauges in order to maintain proper
functioning.
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Pressure Sustaining Valves (PSV)
A pressure sustaining valve
is in fact a pressure reducing
valve in reversed operation.

In this case the isolated

section of the network is
upstream of the valve, where
a certain minimum pressure
should be guaranteed.

The valve starts closing if

the upstream pressure falls
below the preset value.

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Flow Control Valves (FCV)

A flow control valve maintain

constant flow rate independent
of the upstream pressure. With
more sophisticated models,
this flow setting can also be
controlled remotely.

By their similar principle of

operation, the float, PRV, PSV
and FCV can be categorised
as so called automatic control
valves (ACV).

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Air Valves

A special type of valve that helps to release air from pipelines, which prevents
reduction of the conveying capacity. Air accumulation can occur during the filling
of the pipeline but also in normal operation.

The valve consists of a float arrangement contained in a small chamber with an

orifice vent. When water is present in the chamber, the pressure that initiates up
thrust of the float closes the orifice. The appearance of air in the chamber
depresses the water level uncovering the orifice. The air is expelled until normal
water pressure in the chamber is established again.

Air valves are distinguished by the different size of orifice diameters, the number
of chambers (single, dual) and the operating pressure.

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Air Valves – Single Chamber

air valve

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Water Meters
Water metering has a twofold purpose in water
transport and distribution:
1. It provides information about the hydraulic
behaviour of the network, which is useful for the
operation, maintenance and future design of the
network extensions.
2. It provides basis for water billing.

The principle of operation is based on:

1. Pressure difference.
2. Rotation of moving elements.
3. Magnetic or ultrasonic waves.

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Hydraulic Meters – Practical Applications

Minor loss factor ξ, for Venturi tube and orifice plate (KSB, 1990)
Diameter ratio d/D 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80
Short Venturi tube 21 6 2 0.7 0.3 0.2
Aperture ratio m = (d/D)2 0.09 0.16 0.25 0.36 0.49 0.64
Standard orifice plate 300 85 30 12 4.5 2

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Magnetic Flow Meters – Pumping Stations

Manufacturer: Krohne 31
Ultrasonic Flow Meters – Temporary Measurements

Manufacturer: Controloton

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Inferential (Woltmann) Meters with Vertical/Horizontal Axis

Mechanical meters in diameters 40 to 500 mm. 33

Inferential (Household) Meters – Multi-Jet/ Single-Jet

Multi-jet (older) Single-jet (newer) Manufacturer: Aquadis-Itron

Mechanical meters in diameters 15 to 40 mm. 34

 Water Meters – Summary
Meter type
Electro- Ultrasonic Inferential meters Volumetric
Property magnetic flow meters
flow meters meters Woltmann Single-jet Multi-jet Rotary
piston
Common size
300 – 2000 400 – 4000 40 – 500 15 – 40 15 – 40 15 – 40
(mm)
Sensitivity to
velocity Medium High High Medium Low Insensitive
profile
Sensitivity to
Very low Low Low Medium Medium High
water quality
Source: Van Zyl, Pressure loss Very low Very low Medium Low Medium High
2011 Orientation Almost any Almost any Almost any Mainly horizontal Horizontal Any
Minimum
straight
5 – 10D 10D 5D 0 – 5D None None
length
upstream
Minimum
straight
3D 3D 3D 0 – 3D None None
length
downstream
Electricity
Yes Yes No No No No
driven 35
Water Meter Accuracy
• Under normal operation (maximum working pressures around
100-120 mwc and ambient temperatures 0 to 40 ºC), all small-
size mechanical meters are fairly accurate and provide
measurements within a ± 2% error margin.
• This error increases for very low flows, up to a lower limit of the
operating range (typically ± 1 l/min); the meter cannot register
the flows below this limit.
• On the other hand, if the flow passing through is too high, the
rotating element will be worn out quickly. A model with a proper
nominal flow should therefore be selected.
• The manufacturers usually provide information on the operational
flow range, working pressures, accuracy tolerance, etc.
• Besides extreme working conditions, an additional concern of
mechanical water meters is high water hardness, causing
clogging of the rotating elements after some time. 36
Water Meter Readings and Billing - Manual

Unreliable, periodical, time

consuming, no control,…

37
Water Meter Readings and Billing - Remote

More reliable, continuous (data loggers) or periodical,

faster, but still time consuming,… 38
Smart Water Meters – Remote Reading

Continuous reading; ultrasonic

meter that can also capture
noise of possible indoor leaks;
not a standard feature of smart
meters!

Manufacturer: Kamstrup

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Water Meter Readings and Billing – Customers Involved

Readings once a year.

Balance is made with
automatic bank transfers
over last 12 months with
the prognosis for the next
monthly instalments.

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Water Meter Billing – Smartphone App

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Water Meter Reading – Smartphone App

• The app is scanning the water

meter and notifies the reading in
data base.
• The location and water
consumption of the meter is stored
for billing purposes.
• Additional information about the
user can help detect leaks or illegal
connections.
• Supports water balance analyses.

Source: Mobile Water Management 42

Fire Hydrants – Colour Code
Fire hydrants are usually painted in bright
colours: yellow, red, orange, etc., coding
the various capacities of the hydrants.

The hydrants above ground are easy to

detect but they are considered as
anaesthetic; they can be damaged by
cars or vandalised for illegal water use.

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Fire Hydrants – Dry Barrel

This way, a potentially damaged

hydrant is not going to leak.
Moreover, illegal water use is
impossible without access to the
(underground) valve and finally,
the freezing of water in the
hydrant is prevented.

Alternatively, the wet barrel

hydrant will be full with water all
the time, allowing potential risks
but also more prompt operation.

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Fire Hydrants – Underground Location

Valves
Hydrant

Valves

Underground hydrants are covered and may not be easily detectable.

Their location needs to be clearly indicated and also protected from being
inaccessible in situations the hydrant needs to be used.
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Fire Hydrants – Location • At intersections.
• Not too close to the road.
• Not too close to the
building.

• Variable distance (100-200 m).

• Easy access is essential.

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Fire Hydrants – Additional Purpose

Apart for fire fighting, hydrants can

be used for pipe cleaning, flushing
of streets, or to take samples for
water quality analyses.
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Service Connections – PVC (left), DI (right)

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Service Connections – Mixing of Materials

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Household Service Connections

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Indoor Connections

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Indoor Installations –
High Buildings
High buildings are supplied
from the distribution system
only partially, at lower floors.

Internal booster installation is

to be provided to lift the
water to the higher floors.

A cistern can be installed on

the roof for supply of the top
floors and also for fire
fighting purposes.

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Indoor Installations – Domestic Supply

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 Storage – Underground
Besides sufficient amounts of water, a well-
designed storage should:
– maintain non degraded water quality,
– provide reliable operation,
– allow easy maintenance.

Good protection but underground

construction and maintenance are
more expensive 54
Storage – Ground Level
Space limitation, protection of extreme climate, animals,
vandalism (terrorism)

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Storage – Top Inlet, Bottom Outlet

Inlet

Outlet

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Storage – Ventilation

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Storage – Access and Monitoring

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Storage – Maintaining Water Temperature

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Storage – Security

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Pumping Stations – General Engineering Aspects

The main engineering aspects are:

• accessibility and layout of the station,
• foundations and vibration,
• drainage,
• acoustic insulation,
• heating, ventilation & lighting,
• corrosion,
• protection against vandalism,
• health and safety.
Source: Williams and Culp, 1986
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Pumping Stations – Horizontal Layout

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Pumping Stations – Vertical Layout

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Pumping Stations – Reducers/Enlargers

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Pumping Stations – Switch Board

65
Pumping Stations – Air Vessel/Hoisting Equipment

66
Pumping Stations – Piping and Hydraulic Losses

67
Pumping Stations – Extensions

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Pumping Stations – Diesel Power Generator

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Pumping Stations – Security

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Standardisation – Need

The need for standardisation:

• Regarding planning and design, it allows
engineers to be more precise in drafting
specifications. The required testing and
inspection of materials guarantees quality of
applied materials.
• Regarding O&M, it reduces difficulties caused by
the diversity of the installed material.

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Standardisation – Steps

• The first step towards standardisation is the elimination of

variety within certain products.
• An evaluation of the technical characteristics of the
component follows; the fitness for the purpose must result in
a sufficient and guaranteed quality level for the use of
products. The quality assessment, which is implicitly the
result of standardisation, is very important in this phase. In
any manufacturing process there will be a deviation within
certain limits and the products have to be tested; variations in
quality may not be acceptable.
• The level and frequency of testing depend on several factors
but predominantly on the degree of certainty with regard to
the consequences caused by inadequate quality.

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Centralisation of Testing – Need

• Centralisation of testing can be obtained by

establishing an institution that will assist the water
sector with services related to quality control.

This offers obvious advantages:

• lower expenses for quality control,
• availability of proper equipment at the required time,
• continuity of testing and inspection,
• development of experience in the field,
• the exchange of information.

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KIWA Certificates

The certificates issued for:

• the quality of the
product,
• an assessment of the
manufacturing process,
• an assessment of
internal quality control
scheme,
• an assessment of
toxicological aspects of
the production.

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KIWA Certified Pipes

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KIWA Certified Water Meters

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Course Topics

Chapter 1: WT&D Systems

Introduction, definitions, objectives, types, configurations
Chapter 2: Water Demand
Categories, patterns, calculation, forecast
Chapter 3: Steady Flows in Pressurised Networks
Network hydraulics, losses, branched and looped layouts,
hydraulics of storage and pumps
Chapter 4: Design of WT&D Systems
Hydraulic design of network, engineering design, selection
of materials, tertiary networks, computer modelling
Chapter 5: Network Construction
Excavation, pipe laying, jointing, testing
Chapter 6: Operation & Maintenance
Monitoring, reliability, NRW, corrosion, cleaning, repairs

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Water Transport and Distribution
Chapter 4B:
THE ENGINEERING DESIGN OF WT&D SYSTEMS
Pipe Materials and Appurtenances
Engineering Design of Storage and Pumps
Standardisation and Quality Assessment

Nemanja Trifunović, PhD, MSc

Associate Professor of
Water Supply Engineering
IHE-Delft Institute for Water Education
n.trifunovic@un-ihe.org