GRADE XI: PSYCHOLOGY

CHAPTER 4: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

LIFE SPAN PERSPECTIVE ON DEVELOPMENT

Q. Explain the life span perspective on development/ justify how the life span perspective
on development takes a comprehensive view of how human beings grow and progress
through life.

A. Development is the pattern of progressive, orderly, and predictable changes that begin at
conception and continue throughout life.

1. Development is lifelong, i.e. it takes place across all age groups starting from conception to
old age.
i. It includes both gains and losses, which interact in dynamic (change in one aspect goes
with changes in others) ways throughout the life-span.

2. The various processes of human development, i.e. biological, cognitive, and socio-
emotional are interwoven in the development of a person throughout the life-span.

3. Development is multi-directional.
i. Some dimensions /components of a given dimension of development may increase,
while others show decrement.
ii. For example, the experiences of adults may make them wiser and guide their decisions.
iii. However, with an increase in age, one’s performance is likely to decrease on tasks
requiring speed, such as running.

4. Development is highly plastic, i.e. within person, modifiability is found in psychological

development, though plasticity varies among individuals.
i. This means skills and abilities can be improved or developed throughout the life-span.

5. Development is influenced by historical conditions.

i. For example, the experiences of 20-year olds who lived through the freedom struggle in
India would be very different from the experiences of 20 year olds of today.
ii. The career orientation of school students today is very different from those students
who were in schools 50 years ago.

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6. Development is the concern of a number of disciplines.
i. Different disciplines like psychology, anthropology, sociology, and neuro-sciences study
human development.

7. An individual responds and acts on situations, which include what was inherited, the
physical environment, social, historical, and cultural contexts.
i. For example, the life events in everyone’s life are not the same, such as, death of a
parent, accident, earthquake, etc., affect the course of one’s life as also the positive
influences such as winning an award or getting a good job.
ii. People keep on changing with changing contexts.

Q. Describe the factors influencing development.

A.
1. GENOTYPE: refers to the actual genetic material or a person’s genetic heritage
2. genotype is expressed in observable and measurable features and is known as
PHENOTYPE.
Phenotype includes physical traits such as height, weight, eye and skin colour, as well as
some psychological traits (such as intelligence, creativity and personality). these
observable features of an individual are the result of interaction between the
environment and the inherited traits
*genes provide a unique pattern and time table for the development of an individual.
But genes don’t exist in isolation. Development occurs within and in relation to the
environment (the surroundings/ environment) of the person
3. environmental influences: environment provided by the family, school, peers etc shapes
the person.
Sandra Scarr(1992) believes that the environment provided by parents for their children
depends to some extent on their own genetic pre disposition. Eg- intelligent parents
would provide their children with books to read. This would most likely lead to the child
becoming a good reader too. A child’s genotype (such as being cooperative and
attentive) is likely to result in teachers and parents giving more positive responses to
them, as compared to children who are inattentive.
*children themselves choose certain environments based on their genotype. Eg. A child
may perform well in music because of his/her genotype. He/she will seek and spend
more time in an environment which will enable him/her to perform.

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Bronfenbrenner’s Contextual View of Development

Q. Explain the contextual view of development as described by Urie Bronfrenbrenner / What

is the contextual view of development?

1. Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of development emphasizes the role of environmental factors in
the development of an individual.
2. According to him, a child’s development is affected by the world around her/him (could be the
conversations s/he has with her/his playmates, or the social and economic life circumstances.)
3. Research shows that children in impoverished environments mostly have un-stimulating environment-
which lacks books, magazines, toys, etc., lack experiences such as visits to library, museum, zoo, etc., have
parents who are ineffective as role models, and live in overcrowded and noisy surroundings. As a result of
these conditions, children are at a disadvantage and have difficulties in learning.

i. The microsystem is the immediate environment/setting in which the individual lives. It is in these
settings where the child directly interacts with social agents – the family, peers, teachers, and
neighborhood.
ii. The mesosystem consists of relations between the components of the Microsystem. For example, how
a child’s parents relate to the teachers, or how the parents view the adolescent’s friends, are likely to
influence an individual’s relationships with others.
iii. The exosystem includes events in social settings where the child does not participate directly, but they
influence the childs’ experiences in the immediate context. For example, the transfer of father or
mother may cause tension among the parents which might affect their interactions with the child or
the general facilities available to the child like quality of schooling, libraries, medical care, means of
entertainment, etc.
iv. Macrosystem includes the culture in which the individual lives.
v. Chronosystem involves events in the individual’s life course, and socio-historical circumstances of the
time such as, divorce of parents or parents’ economic setback, and their effect on the child.

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Durganand Sinha’s Ecological Model Of Development

1. Durganand Sinha (1977) has presented an ecological model for understanding the development of
children in Indian context.
2. Ecology of the child could be viewed in terms of two concentric layers upper layer
Surrounding layer

3. The “upper and the more visible layers” consist of home, school, peer groups, and so on. The most
important ecological factors influencing development of the child in the visible upper layer constitute
the:
(i) home, its conditions in terms of overcrowding, space available to each member, toys,
technological devices used, etc.,
(ii) nature and quality of schooling, facilities to which the child is exposed, and
(iii) Nature of interactions and activities undertaken with peer groups from childhood onwards.

These factors constantly interact with one another.

4. These are embedded in a larger setting, the “surrounding layers”

The elements of the surrounding layer of ecology constitute the:
(i) general geographical environment: It includes space and facilities for play and other activities
available outside the home including general congestion of the locality and density of
population,
(ii) institutional setting :provided by caste, class, and other factors, and
(iii) General amenities available to the child like drinking water, electricity, means of entertainment
and so on.

The visible and the surrounding layer factors interact with one another and may have different consequences
for development in different people. The ecological environment can change or alter during any time of the
individual’s life-span. Therefore, to understand differences in the functioning of an individual, it is important
to see the individual in the context of her/ his experiences.

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES

1. human life proceeds through various stages

2. Developmental stages are assumed to be temporary.
3. Are often characterized by a dominant feature which gives each period its uniqueness.
4. In each stage, the person progresses towards an assumed goal- a state or an ability that he/she must
achieve in the same order as other persons, before progressing to the next stage in the sequence.
5. Each individual differs from the other in terms of the time and rate of development from one stage to
the next.
6. Certain patterns of behavior and certain skills are learned more easily and successfully during certain
stages. These achievements of a person become the social expectations of that stage of development.
These are called developmental tasks.

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 PRE NATAL STAGE

1. Is the period from conception to birth.

2. Typically lasts for 40 weeks.
3. Genotype guides the development from pre-natal period and till after birth.
4. Both genes and environment affect development.
5. Development during this stage is also affected by maternal characteristics-such as mothers age ,
nutrition, emotional state, disease or infection carried by mother. Eg. HIV, genital herpes.
6. Teratogens: are environment agents that cause deviations in normal development and can lead to
abnormalities and even death. Common teratogens are – drugs(cocaine), infections, radiations(x-
rays), toxins(pollutants, carbon mono oxide , lead)

INFANCY (0 TO 2 Years)

Just before birth newborns have most but not all brain cells. Neural connections among these cells
develop at a rapid rate.

Motor Development In Infancy

1. Movement of the newborn is governed by reflexes. Reflexes are automatic, built in responses to
stimuli. They are genetically carried survival mechanism and are the building blocks for motor
development.
i). They act as adaptive mechanisms before the baby has had the chance to learn various
responses.
ii). Some reflexes are present throughout the life-like, coughing, sneezing, yawning. Others
disappear as the brain functions develop. (Table 4.1 pg 71)
2. As brain develops, physical development also happens. Muscles and nervous system mature. Basic
motor skills are-grasping , sitting , crawling, walking, running.

Sensory development In Infancy

1. Newborns prefer to look at some stimuli rather than others-such as faces. These preferences
change over time.
2. Vision: a newborn’s vision is lower than the adult vision. By 6 months, vision improves. By 1 yr,
vision is almost the same as that of an adult (20/20). Current research suggests that newborns
may be able to differentiate between red and white colors. Full color vision develops by 3
months of age.
3. Hearing: infants can hear right after birth. As they grow , they are better able to recognize the
direction of sound.
4. Newborns respond to touch and can feel pain.
5. Smell and taste capacities are present in newborns.
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 Cognitive development In Infancy

1. Piaget believed that children actively construct their understanding of the world.
2. As children grow, information in learned and they adapt the thinking to include new ideas etc.
(table 4.2).
3. He believed that a child’s mind passes through a series of stages of thought, from infancy to
adolescence. Each stage is more advanced than the other.
4. The child experiences the world through senses and interaction with objects, through looking,
hearing, touching, grasping.
5. Newborns live in the present and focus on the immediate sensory experience.
i). What’s out of sight is out of mind. Eg. If a toy with which child was playing is hidden in
front of him, the infant would react as if nothing has happened, i.e., he will not search
for the toy.
ii). By 8 months, child starts pursuing the object partially covered in his/ her presence.
They lack object permanence. They are unaware that an object will continue to exist
even when it is not visible to them.

Socio-emotional development In Infancy

1. Infants prefer familiar faces and respond to parent’s presence by cooing and gurgling.
2. They show preference for mother’s company.
3. When frightened by new situations, they cry or show distress.
4. Attachment: refers to the close emotional bond of affection that develops between infants and
parents.
5. Harlow and Harlow (1962) did a study
i). Baby monkeys were separated from their mothers after 8 hours of birth.
ii). They were placed in experimental chambers and were reared by substitute mothers-
One made of wire
Second made of cloth
iii). Half of the baby monkeys were “fed” by the cloth mother, and the other half by wire
mother.
iv). Irrespective of which mother they were fed by, they showed a preference for the cloth
mother and spent a lot of time with her.
v). Thus, this demonstrates that providing nourishment or feeding was not crucial for
attachment. Contact –comfort was vital for attachment to develop.
vi). Human Babies also form an attachment with their parents/ caregivers who respond to
their signals of love and affection

6. Erikson(1968) believed that the first year of life is vital for development of attachment.
i). It represents the stage of developing trust or mistrust.
ii). Trust develops in infant when physical comfort is provided and when parents are
responsive, accepting and sensitive.

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 iii). If parents are insensitive , show dissatisfaction and find fault with child, it creates a
feeling of self-doubt in child.

CHILDHOOD

1. Child’s growth slows down during early childhood

2. Child develops physically and gains weight, height and learns to walk, jump etc.
3. Child has increased physical capacities and can perform tasks independently, set goals and
meet adult expectations.
4. Child’s social world expands to the family and adults nearby and at school.
5. Child begins to acquire concepts of good and bad.

Physical Development In Childhood

1. Early development follows 2 principles-

-Development proceeds cephalocaudally (from head to tail region) :child gains control over the
upper body before the lower part.
-Development proceeds Proximodistally: Growth proceeds from center of body and moves
towards extremities. Child gains control over torso before the extremities.
2. As child grows, body fat decreases, the trunk part lengthens and they look slimmer.
3. Brain and head grow more rapidly than other parts of body.
i). Growth and development of brain helps in maturation of abilities.
4. In middle and late childhood, child increases substantially in size and strength. Increase in size of
some body organs, skeletal and muscular systems lead to increase in weight.

Motor development In Childhood

(table 4.3 NCERT )
1. Two main types of skills develop-
i. -gross motor skills: involve use of arms, legs. Eg.running, jumping, walking
ii. -fine motor skills: finger dexterity, eye-hand coordination. Eg. Holding a pencil, thread
beads. Preference for hand develops in early childhood.

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 Cognitive Development In Childhood
1. In early childhood, cognitive development focuses on Piaget’s stage of pre operational thought.
Some important features of this stage are:
i. Child gains ability to mentally represent an object that is not physically present. Child’s
ability to engage in symbolic thought helps to expand the mental world.
ii. Egocentrism: (self-focus) Child sees world only in terms of their own selves and are
unable to appreciate other’s viewpoint.
iii. Animism: child views all things as living. They assign life like qualities to in-animate
objects. Eg. If a child falls down on the road while running, he may say “road hurt me”.
iv. Intuitive thought: around 4 to 7 years of age child wants answers to all their question.
These questions help child to know why things are the way they are.
v. Centration: refers to the process of focusing on a single feature for understanding an
event and ignoring other features.

2. Concrete operational thought- middle and late childhood

i. Concrete operational thought is made up of operations. Operations refer to mental
actions that allow child to do mentally what was done physically before.
ii. Concrete operations allow child to focus on different features and not just focus on one
aspect of an object. This helps the child to admire the fact that there are different
perspectives of looking at things. This results in the decline of egocentrism in child.
iii. Develops during 7 to 11 years of age.
iv. Intuitive thought is replaced by logical thought.
v. Thinking becomes flexible- child can think about alternatives to solve problems or
mentally retrace steps if required.

Socio-emotional development In Childhood

1. Self, gender and moral development occur. Child develops a sense of who he is and who he wants
to be identified with, because of socialization.
2. A sense of independence starts to develop which makes children do things in their own way.
3. Acc. to Erikson , the way parents respond to a child’s self-initiated activities , lead to
development of either a sense of initiative or guilt.
4. Early childhood : Self-understanding is limited to defining oneself through physical characteristics
(eg. I’m tall , I’m a boy).
5. Middle and late childhood: child is likely to define oneself through internal features such as I’m
smart and I’m popular.
i). Now, Child’s self-description also includes social aspects of self, such as references to
social groups (like being a member of school’s music band, religious group etc)

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 ii). Child’s self-understanding also includes social comparison- They are likely to think about
what they can or can’t do in comparison with others.
iii). This developmental shift helps child to know and establish their own differences from
that of others.
iv). When child enters school, their world expands beyond family.
v). They are able to interact with their age mates, peers. These interactions shape the
development.

Moral Development In Childhood

1. Child learns to differentiate between rightness and wrongness of human acts.

2. According to Kohlberg, children pass through various stages of moral development.
Researched upon how morality develops across ages:
i. He presented children with stories.
ii. In these stories the characters faced moral dilemmas.
iii. Children were asked, what the character in that situation should do, and why.
iv. He concluded following from the data :

Children below 9 Years Children Above 9 Years

i. think in terms of internal authority

i). think in terms of external
ii. Develop moral reasoning through a set
authority
of rule of others such as parents, laws of
i.e. The child believes that actions society
are wrong because they are iii. Accept these rules and adhere to them.
punished and right because they iv. These rules are internalized so as to win
are rewarded. the approval from others and not only to
avoid punishment.
v. Moral thinking is somewhat rigid. But,
as child grows he/she gradually
develops a personal moral code.

By the end of childhood language develops, child can reason logically, becomes more involved in social systems
(family, peers and school) and develops skills of coordination and balance.
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 ADOLESCENCE

1. The term is derived from the Latin word “adolescere” which means “to grow into maturity”.
2. It is a period of transition between childhood and adulthood.
3. It is defined as “the stage of life that begins at the onset of puberty, when sexual maturity or the
ability to reproduce is attained”
4. Is a period of rapid biological and psychological change

Physical Development in Adolescence

1. Puberty marks the end of childhood and signifies the onset of adolescence.
2. Adolescence is characterized by physical changes – both in growth rate and sexual features.
3. Hormones released during this period result in development of primary and sexual characteristics .
i. Primary sexual characteristics are those that are directly related to reproduction
ii. Secondary sexual characteristics are those that are signs of achieving sexual maturity.
4. Pubertal changes in boys-increase in growth, facial hair, changes in voice.
5. Pubertal changes in girls-rapid growth in height which usually begins two years before menarche.
(Onset of menstruation is called menarche)
6. Growth spurt- 12- 13 yrs in boys and 10-11 yrs for girls
7. It’s normal to have variations in pubertal sequence. Both genetics and the environment have a role
to play in this.
8. During puberty, a new awareness of sexual feelings develops. This happens due to individual’s
awareness of the biological changes taking place and the importance placed on sexuality by
parents, peers, society.
9. Many adolescents lack adequate knowledge or have misconceptions about sex and sexuality.
Parents find it difficult to discuss sex with children. So adolescents tend to be secretive about sexual
concerns. This makes communication difficult between parents and children.
i. This concern over adolescent sexuality has become intense because of risk of AIDS and other
sexually transmitted diseases.
10. Development of a sexual identity defines the sexual orientation and guides sexual behavior. It
becomes an important developmental task for adolescents.
i). Adolescents are preoccupied with what they are like and develop individual images of what
they look like.
11. Accepting one’s physical self is another important developmental task. They need to develop a
realistic image of their physical appearance which is acceptable to them.

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 Cognitive development in Adolescence

1. Adolescents’ thoughts become more abstract, logical and idealistic.

2. They become capable of examining their own thoughts, others thought and what others think
about them.
3. They develop a better ability to reason and thus gain a new level of cognitive and social awareness.
4. According to Piaget, adolescents go through the stage of Formal Operational Thought , the features
of which are -
i). Appears between 11 to 15 years of age.
ii). Adolescent’s thinking expands beyond actual concrete experiences.
iii). They start to think more in abstract terms and reason about them.
iv). Adolescent thought becomes idealistic, i.e, they begin to think about ideal characteristics for
themselves and others.
v). They also compare themselves and others with these ideal standards. For eg. They may think
what an ideal parent is like and compare their parents with these ideal standards.
vi). Hypothetical deductive reasoning: Adolescent thinking becomes more systematic in problem
solving. They try to find solutions and alternatives in a systematic manner.
vii). Logical thought also influences the development of moral reasoning. Moral thinking shows
flexibility. They develop a personal moral code after exploring various alternatives.
viii). They also develop a special kind of egocentrism. Acc. to David Elkind, 2 components of this
egocentrism are :

Personal Fable Imaginary Audience

1. Refers to the belief that “I’m unique”. 1. Refers to the adolescent’s belief that
2. This makes adolescents think that no others are as preoccupied with them
one understands them or their as they are with themselves.
feelings 2. They imagine that people are always
3. May make up stories filled with noticing them and observing each
fantasy around themselves behavior that they show. This makes
the adolescent self-conscious.

Forming an Identity

1. “Identity refers to who you are and what your values, commitments and beliefs are”
2. The main task of this stage is to from an identity which is separate from the parents. Adolescents begin to
develop a personalized set of beliefs that are her/his own.
3. During the process of identity formation, the adolescent could face conflict with parents or within
her/himself. Those adolescents, who can cope with the conflicting identities, develop a new sense of self.
Those who are unable to cope with this identity crisis are confused.
4. Acc. to Erikson, this identity confusion can lead individuals to isolate themselves from peers and family or
they may lose their identity in the crowd.
5. Adolescents want independence, but at times may also be afraid of it and show a lot of dependence on their
parents.

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6. Seeking an identity involves searching for continuity and sameness in oneself, greater responsibility and
trying to get a clear sense of who one is, that is, an identity.

FACTORS INFLUENCING IDENTITY FORMATION DURING ADOLESCENCE

Various factors such as cultural background, family and societal values, ethnic background and socio economic
status, all affect identity formation.
1. Family relationship become less important as the adolescent spends more time outside the home. She/he
develops a strong need for per support and acceptance.
2. This increased contact with peers provides them with opportunities to refine social skills and try out
different social behaviors.
3. Both peers and parents influence adolescents. At times, when adolescents face conflicts with their parents,
they identify more with their peers. But, despite this, both parents and peers fulfill different needs of the
adolescent.
4. Vocational commitment also influences identity formation. To decide a profession, it is important that the
adolescent set realistic and achievable goals. Some cultures offer freedom to the young individuals to
choose an occupation while others don’t. Career counseling guides individuals about the various options
available.

Major concerns in Adolescence

Some of the major challenges faced by adolescents are:

Delinquency Substance abuse Eating disorders

Anorexia Bulimia Binge Eating

Nervosa Nervosa

Delinquency
1. Delinquency refers to a variety of behaviours, ranging from socially unacceptable behaviour, legal
offences, to criminal acts.
2. Examples include truancy, running away from home, stealing or burglary or acts of vandalism.
3. (causes) Adolescents with delinquency and behavioural problems tend to have
 a negative self-identity,
 decreased trust,
 Low level of achievement.
 low parental support, inappropriate discipline, and family discord.
 adolescents from impoverished communities characterized by poverty, unemployment, and
having feelings of alienation from the middle class perform antisocial acts to gain attention and to
be popular with their peers.
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 4. Most delinquent children do not remain delinquent forever.

5. This issue can be resolved if : (treatment)

 peer group is changed
 one becomes more aware of social responsibilities
 one develops feelings of self worth,
 one imitates positive behaviour of role models,
 one breaks negative attitudes,
 one overcomes poor self-concept

Substance Abuse
Adolescent years are especially vulnerable to smoking, alcohol and drug abuse.
1. Some adolescents take to smoking and drugs as a way of coping with stress. The addictive powers of
nicotine make it difficult to stop smoking.
2. The reasons for smoking and drug use could be
 peer pressure
 the adolescents’ need to be accepted by the group,
 desire to act more like adults,
 feel a need to escape the pressure of school work or social activities.

Adolescents who are more vulnerable to drugs, alcohol, and nicotine use, are:
 impulsive, aggressive, anxious, depressive, and unpredictable,
 have low self-esteem,
 Low expectation for achievement.

3. Consequences:
i). Drug use if continued long enough can lead to physiological dependency, i.e. addiction to drugs,
alcohol or nicotine may seriously harm the rest of the adolescents’ lives.
ii). Psychological effects- This can interfere with the development of coping skills and responsible
decision making.

4. The De-addiction treatment is facilitated by:

 Positive relationships with parents, peers, siblings, and adults

Eating Disorders:
1. Adolescents’ obsession with self, living in fantasy world and peer comparisons lead to certain
conditions where they become obsessed with their own bodies. Anorexia nervosa and bulimia are
primarily female disorders more common in urban families.
2. Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that involves the persistent need to be thin through starvation.
Individuals with this condition, eat very less and exercise a lot .
The media also projects thinness, as the most desirable image and copying such fashionable image of
thinness leads to this condition.

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 3. Bulimia is another form of an eating disorder in which the individual follows a binge-and-purge eating
pattern. The bulimic goes on an eating binge, then purges by self-induced vomiting or using a laxative
at times alternating it with fasting.

Adulthood

1. An adult is generally defined as someone who is responsible, mature, self-supporting, and well
integrated into society.
2. The assumption of adult roles is determined by the social context an individual is living in.
3. In early adulthood, two major tasks are, exploring the possibilities for adult living and developing a
stable life structure.
4. Gradually, a transition from dependence to independence should occur. This could be marked by an
image of the kind of life the young person wants, especially in terms of marriage and a career.
5. Career and Work
i. Earning a living, choosing an occupation, and developing a career are important themes for people in
their twenties and thirties.
ii. Entering work life is a challenging event.
iii. There are worries about different adjustments, proving one’s competence, performance, dealing with
competition, and coping with expectations both of the employers and oneself.

6. Marriage, Parenthood, and Family

i. The adjustments that young adults have to make when entering a marriage relate to knowing the other
person if not known earlier, coping with each other’s likes, dislikes, tastes, and choices.
ii. If both the partners are working, adjustments are required regarding sharing and performing roles and
responsibilities at home.
iii. Parenthood can be a difficult and stressful transition in young adults, even though it is usually
accompanied by the feeling of love for the baby. How adults experience parenting is affected by
different situations such as the number of children in the family, the availability of social support, and
the happiness or unhappiness of the married couple.

7. Death of a spouse or divorce creates a family structure in which a single parent either the mother or the
father has to take up the responsibility of the children.
8. In recent times, women are seeking employment outside the home thus creating another type of family
in which both parents work. The stressors when both parents are working are quite the same as of a
single working parent ( taking care of children, their schoolwork, illness, and coping with workload at
home and in the office).
9. Physical changes during middle ages are caused by maturational changes in the body.
(i) individuals may vary in the rate at which these changes occur
(ii) Almost all middle aged people face gradual deterioration in some aspects of their physical
functioning such as decline in vision, sensitivity to glare, hearing loss and changes in physical
appearance (e.g., wrinkles, grey hair or thinning of hair, weight gain).
(iii) some cognitive abilities decline with age while others do not. Decline in memory is more in
tasks involving long-term memory than short-term memory. For example, a middle-aged
person can remember the telephone number immediately after s/he has heard it but may not
remember it so efficiently after a few days.
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  Memory tends to show greater decline, while wisdom may improve with age.
 Individual differences exist in intelligence at every age and as not all children are exceptional,
neither do all adults show wisdom.

Old Age

1. It is not easy to determine when “old age” begins.

2. Usually, the age of retirement was linked to old age. Now that people are living longer, age of retiring
from work is changing, and the cut-off point for the definition of “old age” is moving upward.
3. Some of the challenges, which the aged have to cope with include
 retirement,
 widowhood,
 illness,
 death in the family.

4. The image of old age is changing in certain ways.

(i) there are people who have crossed seventy years of age or so and are quite active, energetic,
and creative.
(ii) They are competent and are therefore, valued by society in many walks of life.
(iii) There are aged people in politics, literature, business, art and science.
(iv) The myth of old age as a frightening phase of life is changing.

5. the experience of old age also depends on

(i) the socio-economic conditions,
(ii) availability of health care,
(iii) attitude of people,
(iv) expectations of society
(v) the available support system.

6. Some people perceive retirement as a negative change. They consider it as a separation from an
important source of satisfaction and self-esteem.
(i) Others view it as a shift in life with more time to pursue their own interests.
(ii) It is seen that older adults who show openness to new experiences, more achievement
oriented behavior prefer to keep busy and are better adjusted.
(iii) Older adults also need to adjust to changes in the family structure and new roles (grand
parenting) that have to be learnt.
(iv) Older adults may depend on their children for financial support and to overcome their
loneliness (after children have moved out). This might lead to feelings of hopelessness and
depression in some people.
(v) In old age feeling of loss of energy, and dwindling of health and financial assets, lead to
insecurity and dependency.
(vi) The elderly tend to look towards others for support and care.
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 (vii) It is important to give the elderly a sense of security and belonging, a feeling that people care
for them (especially in the time of crisis), and to remember that we all have to grow old one
day.
7. The death, especially of children and younger adults, are often perceived to be more tragic than those
of others.
(i) In children and younger adults, death is more likely to occur because of accidents but in older
adults it is more likely to occur because of chronic disease.
(ii) The death of a spouse is seen as the most difficult loss. Those left behind after the death of
their partner suffer deep grief, cope with loneliness, depression, financial loss and are also at
risk of many health related problems.
(iii) Widows by far outnumber widowers, because studies show that women live longer than men
and tend to marry men older than themselves. (During such times, support from children,
grandchildren, and friends can help the individual cope with the loss of spouse.)

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