CHAPTER 4: HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

2 Marks

1 Define Development. 2

• Development is the pattern of progressive, orderly, and predictable changes that begin at
conception and continue throughout life.
• Development is influenced by biological, cognitive and socio- emotional processes.

2 Differentiate between genotype and phenotype. 2

• The actual genetic material or a person’s genetic heritage is known as genotype. E.g., DNA.
• Phenotype is the way an individual’s genotype is expressed in observable and measurable
characteristics. Phenotypes include physical traits, such as height, weight, eye, and skin
color, and many of the psychological characteristics such as intelligence, creativity, and
personality.

3 What is animism? 2

Children, because of egocentrism, engage in animism- thinking that all things are living,
like oneself. They attribute life-like qualities to inanimate objects.

4 Define centration. 2

• Children during the preoperational stage have a tendency for centration, i.e., focusing on a
single characteristic or feature for understanding an event.
• For example, a child may insist on drinking a “big glass” of juice, preferring a tall narrow
glass to a short broad one, even though both might be holding the same amount of juice.

5 Define adolescence. 2

A) Adolescence is commonly defined as the stage of life that begins at the onset of puberty,
when sexual maturity, or the ability to reproduce is attained. It has been regarded as a
period of rapid change, both biologically and psychologically.

6 What are developmental tasks? Support with examples. 2

 A) Certain patterns of behavior and certain skills are learned more easily and successfully
during certain stages. These accomplishments of a person become the social expectations
of that stage of development. They are known as developmental tasks. Eg, Menarche,
Crawling.

3 Marks

1 What are the factors affecting prenatal development? 3

• Prenatal development is also affected by maternal characteristics, which include mother’s

age, nutrition, and emotional state. Disease or infection carried by the mother can adversely
affect prenatal development. For example, rubella (German measles), genital herpes, and
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) are believed to cause genetic problems in the
newborn.
• Another source of threat to prenatal development is teratogens- environmental agents that
cause deviations in normal development that can lead to serious abnormalities or death.
Common teratogens include drugs, infections, radiations, and pollution. Intake of drugs
(marijuana, heroin, cocaine, etc.) alcohol, tobacco, etc. by women during pregnancy may
have harmful effects on the fetus and increase the frequency of congenital abnormalities.
• Radiations (such as X- rays), and certain chemicals near industrial areas can cause
permanent change in the genes. Environmental pollutants and toxic wastes like carbon
monoxide, mercury and lead are also sources of danger to the unborn child.

3 Explain the two principles of early development in childhood. 3

• Development proceeds cephalocaudally, i.e., from the cephalic or head region to the caudal
or tail region. Children gain control over the upper part of the body before the lower part.
• Growth proceeds from the center of the body and moves towards the extremities or more
distal regions- the Proximodistal trend, i.e., children gain control over their torso before
their extremities. Initially infants reach for objects by turning their entire body, gradually
they extend their arms to reach for things.
• These changes are a result of a maturing nervous system.
4 Explain physical development in adolescence. 3

• Puberty or sexual maturity marks the end of childhood and signifies the beginning of
adolescence, which is characterized by dramatic physical changes in both, growth rate, and
sexual characteristics. However, puberty is not a sudden event, but it is a part of a gradual
process.
• The hormones released during puberty result in the development of primary and secondary
sexual characteristics. The primary sex characteristics include those directly related to
 reproduction and the secondary sex characteristics include features or signs of achieving
sexual maturity.
• Pubertal changes in boys are marked by acceleration in growth, facial hair, and changes in
voice. In girls, rapid growth in height usually begins about two years about menarche, the
onset of menstruation.
• The growth spurt generally begins at the age of 12 or 13 for boys and at the age of 10 or
11 for girls. It is normal to have variations in the pubertal sequence.

5 What is adolescent egocentrism? 3

According to David Elkind, imaginary audience and personal fable are two components of
adolescents’ egocentrism.

Imaginary audience is adolescent’s belief that others are as preoccupied with them as they are
about themselves. They imagine that people are always noticing them and are observing each
and every behavior of theirs.
For example, how a girl with a pimple feels all people would think how bad her skin is. It is
this imaginary audience which makes them extremely self-conscious.

The personal fable is part of the adolescents’ egocentrism that involves their sense of
uniqueness. Adolescents’ sense of uniqueness makes them think that no one understands them
or their feelings. To retain their sense of personal uniqueness they may weave stories filled
with fantasy around them to create a world that is away from
reality. For example, an adolescent girl thinks that no one can sense the hurt that she feels
because of being betrayed by a friend.

4 Marks
1 Explain Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view on development 4

• Urie Bronfenbrenner’s contextual view of development emphasizes the role of

environmental factors in the development of an individual.
• The microsystem is the immediate environment/setting in which the individual lives. It is
in these settings where the child directly interacts with social agents- the family, peers,
teachers, and neighborhood.
• The mesosystem consists of relations between these contexts.
• The exosystem includes events in social settings where the child does not participate
directly, but they influence the child’s experiences in the immediate context.
• Macrosystem includes the culture in which the individual lives.
• Chronosystem involves events in the individual’s life course and socio-historical
circumstances of the time such as divorce of parents, economic setbacks, and their effect
on the child.
• Bronfenbrenner’s view is that a child’s development is significantly affected by the
complex world that envelops her/him.
2 Explain the ecological model for understanding children in Indian 4
context.
• Durganand Sinha (1977) has presented an ecological model for
understanding the development of children in Indian context.
• Ecology of the child could be viewed in terms of two concentric
layers. The “upper and the more visible layers” consist of home,
school, peer groups, and so on.
• (I.e.) home, its conditions in terms of overcrowding, space
available to each member, toys, technological devices used, etc.,
(ii) nature and quality of schooling, facilities to which the child is
exposed, and (iii) nature of interactions and activities undertaken
with peer groups from childhood onwards. These factors do not
operate independently but constantly interact with one another.
• The “surrounding layers” of the child’s ecology constantly
influence the “upper layer” factors. The elements of the
surrounding layer of ecology constitute the: (i) general
geographical environment. It includes space and facilities for
play and other activities available outside the home, (ii)
institutional setting provided by caste, class, and other factors,
and (iii) general amenities available to the child like drinking
water, electricity, means of entertainment and so on.
• The visible and the surrounding layer factors interact with one
another and may have different consequences for development in
different people.
• Therefore, to understand differences in the functioning of an
individual, it is important to see the individual in the context of
her/ his experiences.
3 Discuss the study conducted by Harlow and Harlow on emotional 4
attachment.
• The close emotional bond of affection that develop between
infants and their parents (caregivers) is called attachment.
• In a The baby monkeys were placed in experimental
chambers classic study by Harlow and Harlow (1962), baby
monkeys were separated from their mothers approximately 8
hours after birth.and reared for 6 months by surrogate
(substitute) “mothers”, one made of wire and the other of
cloth.
• Half the baby monkeys were fed by the wire mother, half by
the cloth mother. Regardless of whether they were fed by the
wire or the cloth mother the baby monkeys showed a
 preference for the cloth mother and spent a lot more time with
her.
• This study clearly demonstrates that providing nourishment or
feeding was not crucial for attachment and contact-comfort is
important.
4 Explain Erik Erikson’s theory on development of attachment.

• According to Erik Erikson (1968), the first year of life is the

key time for the development of attachment. It represents the
stage of developing trust or mistrust.
• A sense of trust is built on a feeling of physical comfort which 4
builds an expectation of the world as a secure and good place.
An infant’s sense of trust is developed by responsive and
sensitive parenting.
• If the parents are sensitive, affectionate, and accepting, it
provides the infant with a strong base to explore the
environment. Such infants are likely to develop a secure
attachment.
• If parents are insensitive and show dissatisfaction and find fault
with the child, it can lead to creating feelings of self-doubt in
the child.
• Securely attached infants respond positively when picked up,
move freely, and play whereas insecurely attached infants feel
5. anxious when separated and cry due to fear and get upset.

What the factors influencing identity formation in adolescence.

Support your answer with examples.

• Identity is who you are and what your values, commitments

and beliefs are. The formation of identity during adolescence
is influenced by several factors.
• The cultural background, family and societal values, ethnic
background, and socioeconomic status all prevail upon the
adolescents’ search for a place in society.
• Family relationships become less important as the adolescent
spends more time outside the home and develops a strong need
for peer support and acceptance. Increased interactions with
peers provide them with opportunities for refining their social
skills and trying out different social behaviours. Peers and
parents are dual forces having major influences on adolescents.
Parents and peers serve complementary functions and fulfil
different needs of the adolescents.
 • Vocational commitment is another factor influencing
adolescent identity formation. In some cultures, freedom is
given to the young people to choose an occupation, whereas in
certain other cultures the option of making this choice is not
given to the children.

6 Discuss any two major problems of adolescence. (Write any two from below) 4

DELINQUENCY:
• Delinquency refers to a variety of behaviors, ranging from socially unacceptable behavior,
legal offences, to criminal acts. Examples include truancy, running away from home,
stealing or burglary or acts of vandalism.
• Adolescents with delinquency and behavioral problems tend to have a negative self-
identity, decreased trust, and low level of achievement. Delinquency is often associated
with low parental support, inappropriate discipline, and family discord. Often adolescents
from communities characterized by poverty, unemployment, and having feelings of
alienation from the middle class perform antisocial acts to gain attention and to be popular
with their peers.
• However, most delinquent children do not remain delinquent forever. Change in their peer
group, becoming more aware of their social responsibilities and developing feelings of self-
worth, imitating positive behavior of the role models, breaking negative attitudes, and
overcoming poor self-concept help in reduction of delinquent behavior.

SUBSTANCE ABUSE:
• Adolescent years are especially vulnerable to smoking, alcohol, and drug abuse. Some
adolescents take recourse to smoking and drugs as a way of coping with stress which can
interfere with the development of coping skills and responsible decision making.
• The reasons for smoking and drug use could be peer pressure and the adolescents’ need to
be accepted by the group, or desire to act more like adults, or feel a need to escape the
pressure of schoolwork or social activities. Peer pressure and the need to be with their peer
group make the adolescent either go along with their demands to experiment with drugs,
alcohol, and smoking or be ridiculed. The addictive powers of nicotine make it difficult to
stop smoking.
• It has been found that adolescents who are more vulnerable to drugs, alcohol, and nicotine
use, are impulsive, aggressive, anxious, depressive, and unpredictable, have low self-
esteem, and low expectation for achievement. Drug use if continued long enough can lead
to physiological dependency, i.e., addiction to drugs, alcohol or nicotine which can
seriously jeopardize the rest of the adolescents’ lives.
• Positive relationships with parents, peers, siblings, and adults play an important role in
preventing drug abuse.

EATING DISORDERS:
• Adolescents’ obsession with self, living in fantasy world and peer comparisons lead to
certain conditions where they become obsessed with their own bodies.
• Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder that involves relentless pursuit of thinness through
starvation. It is quite common to see adolescents eliminate certain foods from their diets or
eat slimming foods only.
• The media also projects thinness, as the most desirable image and copying such fashionable
image of thinness leads to anorexia nervosa.
• Bulimia is another form of an eating disorder in which the individual follows a binge-and-
purge eating pattern. The bulimic goes on an eating binge, then purges by self-induced
vomiting or using a laxative at times alternating it with fasting.

7 “Environment of the child has a major role in the development 4

of the child.” Support your answer with examples.

• Genes set the limit and within that limit the environment influences development.
• Parents provide for their children depend, to some extent, on their own genetic
predisposition. For example, if parents are intelligent and are good readers, they would
provide their children with books to read, with the likely outcome that their children
would become good readers who enjoy reading.
• Children themselves choose certain environments based on their genotype. For
example, because of their genotype, children may perform well in music or sports, and
they will seek and spend more time in environments, which will enable them to perform
their musical skills; similarly, an athlete would seek sports-related environment.

8 Explain physical and motor development in childhood. 4

• Early development follows two principles:

i. Development proceeds cephalocaudally i.e., from the cephalic or head region to the
caudal or tail region. Children gain control over the upper part of the body before
the lower part.
ii. Growth proceeds from the center of body and moves towards the extremities or more
distal regions- the proximodistal trend i.e., children gain control over their torso
before their extremities. Initially infants reach for objects by turning their entire
body, gradually they extend their arms to reach for things.
These changes are the result of a maturing nervous system.
• As children grow older, they look slimmer as the trunk part of their bodies lengthen and
body fat decreases.
The brain and the head grow more rapidly than any other part.
During middle and late childhood years, children increase significantly in size and strength
due to an increase in the size of skeletal and muscular systems.
• Gross motor skills during the early childhood years involve the use of arms and legs and
moving around with confidence and more purposefully in the environment.
• Fine motor skills- finger dexterity and eye-hand coordination- improve substantially during
early childhood.
• During these years, the child’s preference for left or right hand also develops.
Major accomplishments in gross & fine motor skills (2 examples each)

6 Marks

1 Describe the main features of life – span perspective on 6

development.

The study of development according to the Life-Span Perspective (LSP) includes the
following assumptions:
1. Development is lifelong, i.e., it takes place across all age groups starting from
conception to old age.
2. The various processes of human development, i.e., biological, cognitive, and socio-
emotional are interwoven in the development of a person throughout the lifespan.
3. Development is multi-directional. Some dimensions or components of a given
dimension of development may increase, while others show decrement.
4. Development is highly plastic, i.e., within a person, modifiability is found in
psychological development, though plasticity varies among individuals. This means
skills and abilities can be improved or developed throughout the lifespan.
5. Development is influenced by historical conditions. (Give the example from TB)
6. Development is the concern of a number of disciplines. Different disciplines like
psychology, anthropology, sociology, and neuro-sciences study human development,
each trying to provide answers to development throughout the lifespan.
7. An individual responds and acts in contexts, which include what was inherited, the
physical environment, social, historical, and cultural contexts.
2 What are the challenges faced by individuals on entry to 6
adulthood?

In early adulthood, two major tasks are exploring the possibilities for adult living and
developing a stable life structure. Gradually, a transition from dependence to independence
should occur.
• Career and work-
➢ Earning a living, choosing an occupation, and developing a career are important
milestones of adulthood.
➢ Entering work life is challenging because it involves apprehensions regarding different
adjustments, proving one’s competence, performance, dealing with competition, coping
with expectations from oneself and of the employers.
➢ It is the beginning of new roles and responsibilities.
Hence, developing and evaluating a career is an important task.

• Marriage, parenthood, and family-

➢ The adjustments that young adults must make when entering a marriage relate to knowing
the other person if not known earlier, coping with each other’s likes, dislikes, beliefs,
 values etc. Adjustments are required regarding sharing and performing roles and
responsibilities at home.
➢ Becoming a parent can be a difficult and stressful transition in young adults. How adults
experience parenting is affected by different situations such as the number of children in
the family, the availability of social support and the happiness or unhappiness of the
married couple.
➢ Death of a spouse or divorce creates a family structure in which a single parent must take
up the responsibility of the children. The stressors when both parents are working are quite
the same as of a single working parent, like taking care of children, illness, workload at
home and office etc.

3 What are the major changes taking place during old age? 6

• Some of the challenges which the aged must cope with include retirement, widowhood,
illness, or death in the family. The experience of old age also depends on the socio-
economic conditions, availability of health care, attitude of people, expectations of
society and the available support system.
• Work is most important during the early adult years, then family and beyond that health
becomes an important issue in a person’s life.
• Retirement from active vocational life is a major change. Some people perceive
retirement as a negative change. They consider it as a separation from an important
source of satisfaction and self-esteem. Others view it as a shift in life with more time to
pursue their own interests.
• Older adults who show openness to new experiences, more striving and achievement-
oriented behavior prefer to keep busy and are better adjusted.
• Older adults also need to adjust to changes in the family structure and new roles (grand
parenting) that have to be learnt.
• Older adults may depend on their children for financial support and to overcome their
loneliness. This might trigger feelings of hopelessness and depression in some people.
• Loss of energy, dwindling of health and financial assets lead to insecurity and
dependency. The elderly tends to look towards others to lean on and to care for them.
Indian culture favors dependency of elderly on their children.

• Death in older adults is more likely to occur due to chronic disease. The death of a spouse
is usually the most difficult loss and the biggest change the elderly must cope with. They
suffer from deep grief, loneliness and so on which leaves them prone to health-related
problems.

Q) As researcher in the field of psychology, you have been assigned the task of
making a checklist for analyzing the cognitive development of children at
different stages. Make a checklist highlight the major developmental tasks that
 a child will be expected to complete at different stages of their cognitive
development.
• Sensorimotor 0-2 years
Infant explores the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions.
• Preoperational 2-7 years
Symbolic thought develops; object permanence is established; the child cannot
coordinate different physical attributes of an object.
• Concrete operational 7-11 years
The child can reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into
different sets. Is able to perform reversible mental operations on representations of
objects.
• Formal operational 11-15 years
The adolescent can apply logic more abstractly; hypothetical thinking develops.