Chapter 2: Kinematics in Different Coordinate Systems

Author: Shadman Salam, PhD

PHY110
Summer 2024

1 Equations of Motion
An indispensable aspect of mechanics is to study motion and explain it using mathematical constructs.
We can divide this study into two parts: one is known as kinematics and the other is dynamics.

Definition 1. Kinematics is the study of motion with no consideration of the cause of acceleration of the
object under inspection.

Definition 2. Dynamics is the branch of mechanics which helps us determine the acceleration directly, by
considering the unbalanced force causing it.

In this chapter we are going to scrutinize the details of kinematics and develop the equations that are used
to describe the motion of particles.

1.1 Velocity from Acceleration

We know,
dv(t)
= a(t) (1)
dt
which when integrated with respect to t yields,

t1
dv(t′ ) ′ t1
Z Z
dt = a(t′ )dt′
t0 dt′ t0
Z t1 Z t1
⇒ dv(t′ ) = a(t′ )dt′ (2)
t0 t0
Z t1
⇒ v(t1 ) − v(t0 ) = a(t′ )dt′ .
t0

This means that we can calculate the velocity at a time t if we know the initial starting velocity at time
t0 ≡ v0 and the acceleration as a function of time such that,
Z t
v(t) = v0 + a(t′ )dt′ . (3)
t0

Note 1. Note that we have used t′ in the integral as a dummy variable to avoid confusion with the upper
limit t.

Example 1. A ping-pong ball is released near the surface of the moon with velocity v0 = (0, 5, −3) m/s.
It accelerates (downward) with acceleration a = (0, 0, −2) m/s2 . Find the velocity after 5 s.
So,
v0 = 5ĵ − 3k̂,

a(t) = −2k̂.
We need to apply Equation 3 and we must remember that it is a vector equation. Thus,

v(t) = vx (t) + vy (t) + vz (t)

and,
Z t
vx (t) = v0x + ax (t′ )dt′
0
Z t
vy (t) = v0y + ay (t′ )dt′
0
Z t
vz (t) = v0z + az (t′ )dt′ .
0

Then it is easy to see that,

vx = 0 m/s
vy = 5 m/s
Z 5
vz = −3 − 2 dt ⇒ −3 − 2(5) = −13 m/s .
0

1.2 Position from Velocity

Starting with the equation,
dr(t)
= v(t), (4)
dt
if one integrates in a similar manner as that in (2),
t1
dr(t′ ) ′ t1
Z Z
dt = v(t′ )dt′
t0 dt′ t0
Z t1 Z t1
⇒ dr(t′ ) = v(t′ )dt′ (5)
t0 t0
Z t1
⇒ r(t1 ) − r(t0 ) = v(t′ )dt′ .
t0

Thus, we end up with

Z t
r(t) = r0 + v(t′ )dt′ . (6)
0

1.3 Uniform Acceleration Motion

It so happens that a crucial part of kinematics is dealing with motion with uniform acceleration, i.e.
acceleration is time-independent and retains a constant value. A classic example of such a motion is a
particle moving under the influence of gravity, such as the ping-pong ball in Example 1. In such a
scenario we can set a = constant in Equation 3 to yield,
Z t
v(t) = v0 + a (t′ )dt′ ⇒ v(t) = v0 + at, (7)
t0

which in combination with Equation 6 leads to,

2
 Z t
r(t) = r0 + v(t′ )dt′
0
Z t
⇒ r(t) = r0 + (v0 + at′ )dt′ (8)
0
1
⇒ r(t) = r0 + v0 t + at2 .
2
Note 2. Remember that the boxed expressions in Equation 7 and Equation 8 apply only to problems
with constant acceleration.

Example 2. Determine the equation for the trajectory of a particle in free-fall near the surface of the
Earth.

Free-fall means an object moves under the influence of gravity only and thus near Earth’s surface it means
|a| = g m/s2 . If the z−axis is chosen to be the vertical direction then,

a = −g k̂.

If the object is released at t = 0 with initial velocity v0 then,

x = x0 + v0x t
y = y0 + v0y t (9)
1
z = z0 + v0z t − gt2 ,
2
using Equation 8. For convenience, we set the initial position at r0 = 0 and v0y = 0 such that motion of
the particle is only in the xz−plane. Then, Equation 9 reduces to,
x
x = v0x t ⇒ t = which leads to,
v0x
1
z = v0z t − gt2
2
x 2 (10)
   
x 1
⇒ z = v0z − g
v0x 2 v0x
v0 g
⇒ z = z x − 2 x2 ,
v0x 2v0x

which is the well-known parabolic path followed by a particle in free-fall projectile motion.

Figure 1: Parabolic Trajectory of Projectile Motion.

3
2 More Vector Technicalities Relevant to Describing Motion
Let us consider a general vector A(t), which is time-dependent. The change in A over a time t to t + ∆t
is,
∆A = A(t + ∆t) − A(t)
as can be seen in Figure 2. Then it is clear that,

Figure 2: ∆A = A(t + ∆t) − A(t)

dA A(t + ∆t) − A(t)
= lim ,
dt ∆t→0 ∆t
but since we are dealing with vectors, things are not quite the same as with differentiating ordinary
functions of time. It is important to realize that dA/dt is itself a new vector. Significantly, A can change
in both magnitude and direction whereas a scalar function can only change in magnitude.

Figure 3: A vector derivative can describe changes in both magnitude and direction.

From Figure 3 we can see that for a small increment ∆A added vectorially to A, both the magnitude and
the direction of A is changed. We can understand it by resolving ∆A into its components ∆A|| and ∆A⊥ ,
relative to the direction of A. For infinitesimal changes (limit of the derivative), ∆A|| is only responsible
for changes in magnitude of A while ∆A⊥ is responsible for changes in direction of A without affecting
its magnitude.

Note 3. What if dA/dt is always normal to A? In that case, there can be no changes in the size of A
and as such A can only describe a rotational vector changing direction with time, as depicted in Figure 4.
This is what happens during uniform circular motion.

Figure 4: If dA/dt is perpendicular to A, we get a purely rotational motion.

4
Example 3. Consider a particle executing a uniform circular motion in the xy−plane. The motion is
described by the equations,
r = r(cos ωt î + sin ωt ĵ) .
Determine the velocity, acceleration and the equation for the trajectory of the particle.
The magnitude of the position vector r is,
p p
|r| = r2 cos2 ωt + r2 sin2 ωt = r cos2 ωt + sin2 ωt = r = constant .
| {z }
=1

The trajectory is a circle since we have here a constant radius of rotation!

Thus, by convention, the particle is said to be moving counterclockwise around the circle, starting at (r, 0)
(in polar coordinates (r, θ)) at t = 0. It completes one revolution in a time T (called the period ) such that
2π
ω= is the angular velocity
T
.
The tangential velocity, v is by definition,
dr
v= = r[(− sin ωt)ω î + (cos ωt)ω ĵ] = rω(− sin ωtî + cos ωtĵ).
dt
v is tangent to the circle because,

v . r = r2 ω(− sin ωt cos ωt + cos ωt sin ωt) = 0

i.e. v is normal to r. Thus, the tangential speed is simply,

|v| = rω = constant.

Finally,
dv
a= = rω[(− cos ωt)ω î − (sin ωt)ω ĵ] = −ω 2 r [cos ωtî + sin ωtĵ] ⇒ a = −ω 2 r .
dt | {z }
=r

The acceleration is directed towards the center (radially inward) and hence is known as centripetal accel-
eration.

Figure 5: Uniform circular motion.

Circular motion is even more instructive from a vectorial perspective. Let’s identify some salient features
from our study of rotational vectors and circular motion.

1. v . r = 0 ⇒ v can only alter the direction of r with no effect no its magnitude. Thus, we see a
circular trajectory as r rotates about the origin.

5
 2. a = −ω 2 r ⇒ a . v = −ω 2 r| {z
. v} = 0 which means that dv/dt is normal to v which then implies
=0
dv/dt can only change the direction of v so we end up with a uniform circular motion as the speed
is constant.

Some more formal vector identities required for vector differentiation are listed below:

d dc dA
(cA) = A + c ; here, c is a scalar function and not necessarily a constant.
dt dt dt
d dA dB
(A . B) = . B+A . ; (11)
dt dt dt
d dA dB
(A × B) = ×B + A× .
dt dt dt

2.1 Gradient, Divergence and Curl

If A(x, y, z) is a vector function of the coordinates x, y, z, it means that we can associate a vector to each
point in the space described by these three coordinates. As such, we call A a vector field which can be
visualized as a collection of arrows with given magnitudes and directions, each attached to a point on the
plane, as shown in Figure 6(a). On the other hand, a scalar field, ϕ(x, y, z), is a function associating a
single number to each of x, y, z in a given space. The scalar function may either be a pure mathematical
number (dimensionless) or a scalar physical quantity (with units). A visualization of scalar fields is given
in Figure 6(b), where you can estimate the strength of the field by the intensity of the colors on the heat
map.

Figure 6: (a)A Vector field (b)A Scalar field.

2.1.1 Del Operator and its Operations on A and ϕ

To operate on fields, it is often convenient to define the gradient operator or commonly called the del
operator, defined as
 
d d d
∇= î + ĵ + k̂ , (12)
dx dy dz

where the ∇ is called the nabla symbol. Using this one can write a more formal definition for a specific
type of vector field.
Definition 3. A conservative vector field V can be defined as the gradient of a scalar field, S, such that
 
dS dS dS
V = ∇S = î + ĵ + k̂ . (13)
dx dy dz

6
A gravitational field could be considered to be an example of such a conservative field.

Definition 4. A vector field can be operated on by the del operator that leads to a scalar field as,
   
d d d
∇.V= î + ĵ + k̂ . Vx î + Vy ĵ + Vz k̂ , (14)
dx dy dz

which is known as the divergence of V. Physically, divergence at a point represents the degree to which
a small volume around the point is a source or a sink for the vector flow. Think of heating up a gas sample
at one location; the velocity of each molecule collectively represents a vector field with positive divergence
since the vector field seemingly explodes outward from a source (heating point) (Figure 7(a)).

Definition 5. Similarly, one can define another way that the del operator can act on a vector field V,
known as the curl of V:
   
d d d
∇×V = î + ĵ + k̂ × Vx î + Vy ĵ + Vz k̂ , (15)
dx dy dz

which leads to a new vector field. Intuitively, the curl measures the amount to which the vector flow
circulates around a fixed axis. While the divergence operation generalizes to higher dimensions trivially,
the curl operation as defined above, applies to three spatial dimensions only (Figure 7(b)).

Figure 7: (a)Divergence of a Vector field (b)Curl of a Vector field.

3 Motion in Polar Coordinates

In physics, our task is not only to solve interesting problems but also to do so in an efficient and elegant
manner. Nature, to the best of our knowledge, is also very respectful and observant of elegance. As such,
many systems in nature exhibits one of the core foundations of an elegant design: symmetry. We will see
later in the course how physical laws must obey some specific symmetries such that the physics described
by a particular law remains invariant whether you do an experiment in a quite room in Dhaka or somewhere
on Mars. But first let’s just look at one physical object.

Consider a cylinder: if one rotates a cylinder about its symmetry axis, i.e. the z−axis, the cylinder
seemingly remains unchanged. This operation of rotating a cylinder about the z−axis is thus known as
a symmetry operation. This symmetry property of cylinders suggests a coordinate system that makes the
symmetry property of cylinders transparent: the so-called cylindrical coordinate system.

7
 Figure 8: (a) Cylindrical coordinate system. (b)Plane Polar Coordinates.

We can set up the cylindrical coordinate system as shown in Figure 8(a): choose origin O and an axis
through O and label it the z−axis; then the three numbers associated to a point P , (r, θ, z), are collectively
known as the cylindrical coordinates of P .

Note 4. P (r, θ, z): r represents the distance of P from the z−axis and is always positive. The points in
space corresponding to a constant and positive value of r, lie on a circular cylinder. The set of points
for which r = 0 all lie on the z−axis. In Figure 8, P D is the line that intersects z = 0 plane and a ray
directed from O to D subtends an angle θ between OD and the x−axis. Conventionally, θ is positive when
measured counterclockwise and negative otherwise.

Our primary focus now is motion in a 2D plane and thus we ignore the z−axis for now. As such, we are
left with the two remaining values (r, θ) which define the plane polar coordinates. These coordinates
are related to the Cartesian coordinates such that,
p
r = x2 + y 2 ,
(16)
 
−1 y
θ = tan ,
x

as is evident from Figure 8(b). Furthermore, the similarities and differences between the two systems of
coordinates are highlighted in Figure 9(a).

Figure 9: (a)Compare Cartesian and Polar coordinates, (b)Compare Cartesian and Polar unit
vectors.

8
Note 5. The lines of constant x and y values are straight and perpendicular to each other. The same is
not true for r and θ: while lines of constant r are straight and directed outward along the radius (radially
outward), lines of constant θ form concentric circles about the origin. However, r and θ lines are still
perpendicular to each other similar to x and y.
Note 6. Another important difference between Cartesian and polar coordinate systems is how the unit
vectors behave in the respective systems. While the i, ĵ vectors that define directions in Cartesian coor-
dinates have fixed directions, r̂, θ̂ (unit vectors for polar coordinates) are θ− dependent, as can be seen
in Figure 9(b).

3.1 Velocity in Polar Coordinates

It is now clear that in Cartesian coordinates,
 
dr d
v= = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ = ẋî + ẏ ĵ,
dt dt
where we have used a new dot notation such that
dx dy
ẋ ≡ , ẏ ≡ .
dt dt
Such notation is very common in physics and you will increasingly need to use them to reduce clutter in
your equations. In polar coordinates, the vector v becomes,
d
v= (rr̂)
dt (17)
dr̂
= ṙ r̂ + r
;
dt
here, the first term is the radial component of velocity while the second term then must surely be the
tangential component (in the θ̂−direction). To be sure that our intuition about the latter term is
accurate, we must evaluate it explicitly. We start by stating,
r̂ = cos θ(t) î + sin θ(t) ĵ
which leads to,
 
d d dθ
(cos θ(t)) = cos θ by chain rule;
dt dθ dt
= − sin θ θ̇ and similarly,
  (18)
d d dθ
(sin θ(t)) = sin θ
dt dθ dt
= cos θ θ̇
and thus,
dr̂ d d
= (cos θ(t)) î + (sin θ(t)) ĵ
dt dt dt
= − sin θ θ̇ î + cos θ θ̇ ĵ (19)

= (− sin θ î + cos θ ĵ)θ̇.

From Figure 10, it should be obvious that the polar unit vectors (r̂, θ̂) are both dependent on θ such that,

r̂ = cos θ î + sin θ ĵ
(20)
θ̂ = − sin θ î + cos θ ĵ.

9
 Figure 10: Explicit θ−dependence of the polar unit vectors.

Using Equation 20 in Equation 19 we get,

dr̂
= θ̇ θ̂. (21)
dt
In light of Equation 21, we can rewrite Equation 17 as,

v = ṙ r̂ + rθ̇ θ̂ (22)
which explicitly shows that the second term in the velocity expression is indeed in the θ̂−direction and
thus represents the tangential velocity. This idea is made clear in the following figure.

Figure 11: Different components of v visualized in polar coordinates.

Following along the same lines of thought, one can also derive
dθ̂
= −θ̇ r̂ (23)
dt
and is left as an exercise to the reader.

3.2 Acceleration in Polar Coordinates

In a similar vain, one can approach the derivation of acceleration in polar coordinates such that,
d
a= v
dt
d (24)
= (ṙ r̂ + rθ̇ θ̂) which leads to (derive the steps yourself)
dt
⇒ a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 ) r̂ + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇) θ̂,

10
where a double dot over r indicates a double derivative with respect to t. Here,

• The −rθ̇2 term in Equation 24, represents the centripetal acceleration (responsible for executing
circular motion about a fixed center).

• The 2ṙθ̇ θ̂ term in Equation 24, represents the Coriolis acceleration, which usually appears in a
rotational reference frame and gives rise to the fictitious “outward force” while an object is executing
circular motion.

Example 4. A bead moves along the spoke of a wheel at constant speed u m/s. The wheel rotates with
uniform angular velocity θ̇ = ω rad/s about an axis fixed in space. At t = 0 the spoke is along the x−axis,
and the bead is at the origin. Find the,

i velocity in polar coordinates at time t.

From the figure on the left we determine for the bead that the linear speed is related to the radius
of the wheel as,

r
u= ⇒ r = ut
t
→ the velocity components then become ṙ = u, θ̇ = ω
⇒ v = ṙ r̂ + rθ̇ θ̂ = u r̂ + utω θ̂ .

ii Acceleration at time t in Cartesian coordinates.

The acceleration then is,

Equation 24 ⇒ a = (r̈ − rθ̇2 ) r̂ + (rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇) θ̂

= −utω 2 r̂ + 2uω θ̂.

Figure 12: Radial velocity is constant while tangential velocity changes due to changes in the perpendicular
component.

11