Experiment No 1

Aim: To determine the resistivity of a wire by plotting a graph of

potential difference versus current.

Apparatus and Materials Required: resistance wire (of about 1m length), a

voltmeter, a milliammeter, a rheostat, a battery eliminator, plug
key, connecting wires, screw gauge and meter scale.
Theory: It states that the current (I) flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference (V) applied
across its ends provided the physical conditions of the conductor
remain unchanged.

i. e. V I OR V = IR
From the graph R = slope of the V-I graph

If ρ is the resistivity of the material of the wire, then

ρ = RA/L = R πr2/L where r is radius of the wire

and L is length the wire.

Circuit Diagram:

(ON LEFT SIDE)

Observations:

(ON LEFT SIDE)

1. Range of voltmeter = _____ to _____ V

2. Range of ammeter = _____ to _____ mA
3. Least count of voltmeter= __________V
4. Least count of ammeer = __________ mA
5. Length of resistance wire (L) = _______m
6. Radius of the wire ( r) = ______ mm
 Table for ammeter and voltmeter readings

Graph: plot graph V-I graph on full size graph paper.

Calculation: (ON LEFT SIDE)

Result: the resistivity of material of the given wire is _________Ωm.

Precautions: (any three important precautions only)

Sources of Error: (any three)

 Experiment No 2
Aim: To find the resistance of given wire using meter bridge.
Apparatus and Materials Required:
A meter bridge, a galvanometer, resistance box, a battery
eliminator, plug key, jockey, connecting wires, and a screwgauge.
Theory: Meter Bridge is device used to find the value of unknown
resistance. It is based on the principle of Wheatstone bridge.
With the know resistance P in the left gap and the unknown
resistance S in the right gap of the meter bridge, suppose the null
point B is obtained at a distance of l cm from left end A. By the
wheatstone bridge principle
𝑷 𝑹
=
𝑸 𝑺

𝒍 𝑹
=
𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝒍 𝑺

l = R (100-l)/l

Circuit Diagram:
(ON LEFT SIDE)

Observations:

Calucalation :

Result: the resistance of given wire is _____ ohm.

Precautions: (any three important precautions only)

Sources of Error: (any three)

 Experiment No 3
Aim: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection
method and to find its figure of merit.

Apparatus and Materials Required: a high resistance box (0-10kΩ), a low

resistance box (0-500Ω), one way key, connecting wires, battery
eliminator.

Theory: (a) The resistance G of galvanometer by half deflection method

is given by

𝑹𝑺
G=
𝑹−𝑺
(b) The figure of merit of a galvanometer is defined as the
current required to produce a deflection of one scale division in
the galvanometer. It is given by

𝐄
k=
(𝐑+𝐆)𝛉

Circuit diagram: (a) for half deflection method

(b) For figure of merit

Observations: (a) for half deflection method

 (b) For figure of merit

Calculation:

Result: (a) the resistance of galvanometer is _____ ohm.

(b) Figure of merit of galvanometer is k = _________A/div

Precautions: (any three important precautions only)

Sources of Error: (any three)

Experiment No 4

Aim: To find the frequency of ac mains using a sonometer and horse

show magnet.

Apparatus and Materials Required:

A sonometer with a brass wire (or manganin wire), a horse shoe

magnet, a step down transformer, slotted weight with hanger.
Theory: the frequency of fundamental mode of a wire of length l, mass per
unit length m and stretched under tension T is given by

𝟏 𝑻
ν= √
𝟐𝒍 𝒎

if the wire is held between the poles of a horse shoe magnet and
ac of frequency f is passed through it, then the wire vibrates due
to interaction between perpendicular magnetic field and the
current in the wire. Resonance occurs when the natural frequency
of ν of the wire equals the frequency f of ac. therefore

𝟏 𝑻
f= √
𝟐𝒍 𝒎

Diagram:

Observation:

1. Length of wire l = ______ cm

2. Mass of wire if length l , m = ______ g
3. Mass of hanger = ____g
Calculation:

Result: the frequency of the ac mains =_____ Hz

Percentage error =

Precautions: (any three important precautions only)

Sources of Error: (any three)

 Experiment 5

Aim: To find the value of v for different value of u in case of a concave

mirror and to find its focal length.

Apparatus and Material Required:

An optical bench with three uprights, two sharp edged needle, a

concave mirror, meter scale, spirit level.

Theory: The mirror formula is given by

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒖𝒗
= + => f =
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖 𝒖+𝒗

Ray Diagram:

Observations:

Rough focal length of concave mirror = ____ cm

Graph:

Result: the focal length of concave mirror (from formula) = ____ cm

The focal length of concave mirror (from graph) = _____ cm

Precautions: (any three important precautions only)

Sources of Error: (any three)

 Experiment 6

Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graph

between u and v.

Apparatus and Material Required:

An optical bench with three uprights, two sharp edged needle, a

convex lens, meter scale, spirit level.

Theory: The lens formula is given by

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒖𝒗
= - => f =
𝒇 𝒗 𝒖 𝒖−𝒗

Ray Diagram:

Observations:

Rough focal length of convex lens = ____ cm

Graph:
Result: the focal length of convex lens (from formula) = ____ cm

The focal length of convex lens (from graph) = _____ cm

Precautions: (any three important precautions only)

Sources of Error: (any three)

 Experiment 7

Aim: To determine the angel of minimum deviation for a given prism by

plotting a graph between angle of incidence and angle of
deviation.

Apparatus and Material Required:

Drawing board, board pins, alpins, protector and ruler, prism,

white sheet.

Theory: the angle of deviation is first decreases with increase in angle of

incidence, but after certain minimum value of angle of deviation, it
starts increases with increase in angle of incidence. This minimum
value is called angle of minimum deviation. In case of angle of
minimum deviation:

(i) Refracted ray is parallel to base of the prism.

(ii) The angle of emergent is equal to angle of incidence.
Ray Diagram:

Observations:

Graph:

Result: the angle of minimum deviation = ____

Precautions: (any three important precautions only)
Sources of Error: (any three)
Experiment 8

Aim: To draw I-V characteristics curve for a p-n junction diode in

forward and reverse bias.

Apparatus and Material Required:

A p-n junction diode, a resistor, a variable voltage power supply,

milliammeter, microammeter, voltmeter, plug key, connecting
wires.

Theory: A graph showing the variation of current flowing through a p-n

junction with the voltage applied across it is called I-V
characteristic of a p-n junction diode

* If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to p-side and

the negative is connected to n-side, then diode is said to be
forward biased. With increase in bias voltage, initially the current
increases very slowly, till the voltage across the diode crosses
knee voltage. After this voltage current increases rapidly with
small increase in bias voltage.

* If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to n-side and

the negative is connected to p-side, then diode is said to be
reverse biased. With increase in bias voltage, initially the current
increases very slowly almost negligible, till the voltage across the
diode crosses cut-off voltage. After this voltage, current increases
rapidly with very small increase in bias voltage. In this case
current flowing through diode is order of microampere.

Circuit Diagram:
Observations:

1. Range of voltmeter = _____ to _____ V

2. Range of mili-ammeter = _____ to _____ mA
3. Range of micro-ammeter = _____ to _____ µA
4. Least count of voltmeter= __________V
5. Least count of ammeter = __________ mA
6. Least count of ammeter = __________ µA

Graph:

Result: The I-V characteristics curve for forward biasing of the given
diode as shown in graph.

Precautions: (any three important precautions only)

Sources of Error: (any three)