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CCFSS Proceedings of International Specialty (1988) - 9th International Specialty Conference
Conference on Cold-Formed Steel Structures on Cold-Formed Steel Structures
(1971 - 2018)

Nov 8th, 12:00 AM

ASCE Design Standard for Stainless Steel Structures

Shin-Hau Lin

Wei-Wen Yu
Missouri University of Science and Technology, wwy4@mst.edu

Theodore V. Galambos

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Structures" (1988). CCFSS Proceedings of International Specialty Conference on Cold-Formed Steel
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 Ninth International Specialty Conference on Cold·Formed Steel Structures
St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A., November 8-9, 1988

ASCE DESIGN STANDARD FOR STAINLESS STEEL STRUCTURES

by

Shin-Hua Lin 1 , Wei-Wen Yu 2 , and Theodore V. Galambos 3

I. INTRODUCTION

Cold-formed stainless steel sections have gained increasing use in

architectural and structural applications in recent years due to their
superior corrosion resistance, ease of maintenance, and attractive ap-
pearance. Typical applications include curtain wall panels, mullions,
door and window framing, roofing and siding, stairs, cars and trucks, and
a variety of special uses (Ref. 21).

Due to the difference in material properties between stainless and

carbon steels, a separate design specification for stainless steel
structural members is needed. The first edition of the Specification for
the Design of Light Gage Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural Members
was published by American Iron and Steel Institute (ArSI) in 1968 (Ref.
4). The current edition of the AISI design specification (Ref. 5) was
issued in 1974 to include design provisions for structural members cold-
formed from sheet, strip, plate or flat bar, annealed and cold-rolled
grades of Types 201, 202, 301, 302, 304, and 316 austenitic stainless
steels.

Recently, the probability-based Load and Resistance Factor Design

(LRFD) criteria have been successfully applied to the structural design
of hot-rolled.steel shapes and built-up members (Refs. 1, 17, 27). The
AISI LRFD Specification is being developed for the design of structural
members 'cold-formed from carbon and low alloy steels (Refs. 18, 19, 24,
25). These design criteria are based on the limit states of strength and
serviceability of the structure. They can provide a more uniform degree
of structural safety and a consistent reliability for different design
situations.

In order to update the Allowable Stress Design (ASD) Specification

and to develop the new LRFD Specification for cold-formed stainless steel
members, a research project has been conducted at the University of
Missouri-Rolla since 1986 under the sponsorship of the American Society
of Civil Engineers (ASCE). This project contains the following two
phases:

1 Research Assistant, Department of Civil Engineering, University of

Missouri-Rolla, Rolla, Missouri
2 Curators' Professor of Civil Engineering, University of Missouri-Rolla,
Rolla, Missouri
3 Professor, Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota

681
 682

1) To prepare an ASCE ASD specification for the design of structural

members cold-formed from austenitic and ferritic stainless steels.
2) To develop the new ASCE LRFDspecification for the design of
cold-formed stainless steel structural members.

Based on the results of previous tests conducted at Cornell Univer-

sity by Johnson, Wang, Errera, Winter, Tang and Popowich (Refs. 15, 16,
20, 31, 32) and the current AISI specifications for the design of cold-
formed stainless steel and carbon steel structural members (Refs. 5, 3),
the ASCE ASD specification has been prepared and proposed in Ref. 22.
The second phase of the research project is concentrated on the develop-
ment of LRFD criteria.

II. ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN CASD) SPECIFICATION

The proposed ASCE Allowable Stress Design Specification (Ref. 22)

is limited to the use of structural members cold-formed from stainless
steel sheet, strip, plate or flat bar, annealed and cold-rolled in 1/16-,
1/4-, and 1/2-hard tempers. This Specification is intended for building
applications and can also be used for other structures if appropriate
allowances are made for dynamic effects.

The design provisions of the ASD Specification are given in terms

of allowable moments and loads instead of allowable stresses. The allow-
able strength is determined by applying a factor of safety to the computed
nominal strength. For the design of cold-formed stainless steel struc-
tural members, the basic safety factors used for flexural members, com-
pression members, bolted connections, and welded connections are 1.85,
2.15, 2.4, and 2.5, respectively. These factors are relatively larger than
those used for cold-formed carbon steel members.

Due to the significant differences in material properties between

stainless and carbon steels, the AISI Specification for the Design of
Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members (Ref. 3) and the AISC Specification
for the Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings
(Ref. 2) do not apply to the design of stainless steel structural members.

The following discussion deals with some major design considerations

proposed in the ASCE ASD Specification. Other design information can be
found in Ref. 22.

1. Materials

Some of the significant differences in material properties between

cold-formed stainless and carbon steels are: (1) pronounced anisotropic
characteristics, (2) difference in stress-strain relationships for dif-
ferent grades of stainless steels, (3) low proportional limits, and (4)
pronounced response to cold work. It should be noted that stainless steels
have different stress-strain curves in the longitudinal and transverse
directions for tension and compression modes of" stress. These curves are
always of gradually yielding type accompanied by relatively low propor-
 683

tional limits. As a result, the buckling stresses in the inelastic region

become more important for the design of cold-formed stainless steel
structural members.

The proposed ASCE ASD Specification includes four types of

austenitic stainless steels (Types 201, 301, 304, and 316) and three types
of ferritic stainless steels (Types 409, 430, and 439). Other stainless
steels may also be used for cold-formed structural members, provided that
they satisfy the requirements stipulated in the Specification.

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is the basic
source of stainless steel designations for the ASCE Specification, in
which references are made to ASTM Specifications A666 (Ref. 6), A176 (Ref.
7), A240 (Ref. 8), and A276 (Ref. 9). Table 1 lists the design yield
strengths, Fy ' for seven types of stainless steels included in the Spec-
ification. It should be noted that for Types 409, 430, and 439 ferritic
stainless steels, the listed yield strengths are based on the minimum
values specified in the ASTM Specification (Ref. 8). These values are
excessively lower than the tested data given in Table 2 on the basis of
Refs. 28, 29, and 30.

For the design of cold-formed stainless steel structural members,

the required secant modulus (E s )' tangent modulus (E t ), and plasticity
reduction factors corresponding to different stress values are given in
the design tables and figures of the allowable stress design specification
(Ref. 22). Tables 3 and 4 list the initial modulus of elasticity (Eo) and
initial shear modulus (Go) for seven types of stainless steels, respec-
tively.

2. Effective Design Width Formulas

In the proposed ASCE ASD Specification, the effective design width

approach is applied to both stiffened and unstiffened compression ele-
ments. It is the same approach used in the current design criteria for
cold-formed carbon steel structural members (Ref. 3) except that consid-
eration has been given to the type of stress (longitudinal compression
or transverse compression).

In view of the fact that a pleasing appearance is one of the impor-

tant considerations in stainless steel design, the maximum permissible
flat-width-to-thickness ratios (wIt) stipulated in this Specification
have been reduced in order to minimize the possible local distortion of
the flat element.

(a) Stiffened Compression Elements

The effective design width of the uniformly compressed stiffened

element is determined on the basis of Winter's effective design width
formula (Ref. 33) as given in Eq. (1). This formula has been verified by
Johnson and Wang for use in stainless steel members (Refs. 20, 31).

bIt = 1.9 vfEo/f [1-0.415 VEo/f I(w/t)] (1)

 684

In Eq. (1), b is the effective design width, Eo is the initial modulus

of elasticity as given in Table 3, f is the compressive stress at the
edge, w is the flat width of the element, and t is the element thickness.
Because Eq. (1) compared favorably with the experimental data obtained
from numerous stainless steel beam and column tests as reported in Ref.
31 for temper grades, this equation was used in the 1974 Edition of the
AISI Specification for the design of stainless steel structural members.

In the proposed ASCE Specification, Eq. (1) is expressed in terms

of the blw ratio and the slenderness factor A as follows:

blw = (l/A)(l - 0.22/A) (2)

where A is a slenderness factor determined by Eq. (3):

(3)

In Eq. (3), ucr is the critical local buckling stress given by the fol-
lowing expression:

(4)

where k is the buckling coefficient, ~ is the plasticity reduction factor

used for the inelastic buckling, and jJ is the Poisson's ratio. The
plasticity reduction factor varies with the types of loading and the edge
support conditions. Al though the plasticity reduction factor is needed
in the inelastic range (Ref. 13), it has been shown that the factor ~ can
be taken as a unity for cold-formed stainless steel members having
stiffened and unstiffened compression elements (Ref. 31). Consequently,
the slenderness factor A can be computed by using Eq. (5) for ~ = 1.0.

A = (1.0521 {k) (wit) ( ¥tIEo) (5)

In the above equation, the buckling coefficient, k, is taken as 4.0 for

long, stiffened elements supported by a web on each longitudinal edge.

(b) Unstiffened Compression Elements

The effective design width approach is also proposed for the design
of members consisting of unstiffened compression element in the ASCE ASD
Specification. Equations (2) and (5) are equally employed for the uni-
formly compressed unstiffened element, except that the buckling coeffi-
cient is taken as 0.5. This k value is slightly higher than the
theoretical value of 0.43, which is being used in the AISI'specification
for the design of cold-formed carbon steel structural members.

3. Beam Design
 685

(a) Bending Strength

The design provisions of the proposed ASCE ASD Specification for beam
design are written in terms of the allowable moment instead of the al-
lowable bending stress. Section 3.3 of the Specification gives the fol-
lowing equations for determining the nominal strengths. The factor of
safety used for computing the allowable moment for cold-formed stainless
steel flexural members is 1.85.

(i) Nominal Section Strength

For section strength based on initiation of yielding, the nominal

moment, Mn' can be calculated as follows:

(6)

in which, Se is the elastic section modulus of the effective section and

Fy is the design yield strength. The elastic section modulus is calcu-
lated on the basis of the effective width formulas given in Eqs. (2) and
(5) with the extreme compression or tension fiber at the yield stress of
Fy .

(ii) Lateral Buckling Strength

For doubly- or singly-symmetric sections subject to lateral

buckling, the nominal moment, Mn' can be determined as follows:

where Sf is the elastic section modulus of the full, unreduced section

for the extreme compression fiber, Sc is the elastic section modulus of
the effective section calculated at a stress Mc/S f in the extreme com-
pression fiber, and Mc is the critical moment due to lateral buckling.

Additional design expressions for determining the critical moment

Mc are included in the Specification. For singly-symmetric sections
bending about the axis of symmetry or bending. about the axis perpendicular
to the symmetry axis, theoretical formulas are used to determine the
critical moments. In addition, the effect of local buckling on lateral
buckling strength is considered in this design provision by using the
ratio of the effective section modulus to the full section modulus,
Sc/Sf. This approach is adopted from the current AISI Specification for
cold-formed carbon and low alloy steels (Ref. 3).

The critical moments, Mc' discussed above are limited to My, which
is the maximum moment causing initial yielding at the extreme compression
fiber of the full section. In order to account for the inelastic response
of stainless steels, a plasticity reduction factor, Et/Eo' was introduced
in various formulas for lateral buckling in the inelastic range.

(b) Shear Strength

 686

According to the design prov1s10n of the proposed allowable stress

design specification, the design shear strength at any section shall not
exceed the allowable shear force, Va' calculated as follows:

2. 61E o t 3 (G s /G o )
(8)
h

where Gs is the shear secant modulus, Go is the initial shear modulus as

given in Table 4, F v is the shear yield strength as given in Table 1,
and h is the depth of the flat portion of the web measured along the plane
of the web.

The allowable shear force given in Eq. (8) is determined from the
product of the allowable shear buckling stress (Fv ) and the cross-
sectional area of web (hxt). The critical buckling stress for shear of
a flat element can be expressed by Eq. (4), in which ocr is replaced by
~cr' and w is changed to h. The shear buckling coefficient, k, is taken
as 5.35 for a long plate having simply supported conditions. The
plasticity reduction factor, Gs/Go ' is used to reflect the shear buckling
behavior of stainless steel in the inelastic range (Ref. 5). Substituting
the values discussed above, assuming ~ = 0.3 and applying a safety factor
of 1.85, the allowable shear buckling stress, Fv' is obtained. The maximum
allowable shear stress, 0.61F , given in Eq. (8) is determined by di-
viding the shear yield strengJhby a safety factor of 1.64. This smaller
safety factor has been chosen to reflect the less serious nature of shear
yielding in comparison with yielding in tension and compression.

(c) Web Crippling Strength

The design provisions for web crippling and combined bending with
web crippling are based on the current AISI Specification (Ref. 3) for
the design of cold-formed carbon steel members. However, the factors of
safety used to determine the allowable web crippling strength of stainless
steel members are 2.0 and 2.2 for shapes having single webs and 1-
sections, respectively. These factors are slightly larger than those used
for cold-formed carbon steel members.

4. Column Design

The design provisions of the proposed ASCE ASD Specification for

column design are written in terms of the allowable load instead of the
allowable compressive stress. The Specification contains the following
equation to determine the nominal axial load Pn .

(9)

where Ae is the effective area calculated at the stress Fn' -and Fn is the
least of the flexural, torsional, and torsional-flexural buckling
stresses as discussed below. For computing the allowable load for the
design of stainless steel columns, the safety factor is 2.15.
 687

(a) Flexural Buckling

For sections subject to flexural buckling only, the buckling stress,

Fn , can be determined as follows:

rr2Et
(10)
(KL/r)2

In Eq. (10), Et is the tangent modulus corresponding to the buckling

stress Fn , K is the effective length factor, L is the unbraced length of
the member, and r is the radius of gyration of the full, unreduced cross
section.

The tangent modulus is used for flexural column buckling in the in-
elastic range. An iterative process is needed in Eq. (10) to determine
the correct buckling stress. Design tables and figures for Et are provided
in the proposed specification. For the purpose of simplicity, the tangent
modulus may be determined by using the modified Ramberg-Osgood equation
(Ref. 23). When a member is subjected to elastic buckling, Et is simply
replaced by Eo in Eq. (10). For short, compact columns, the yield
strength, Fy ' governs the design. Otherwise, the effect of local buckling
on column strength is taken into account by using the effective area,
Ae , as given in Eq. (9).

(b) Torsional and Torsional-Flexural Buckling

For doubly- or point-symmetric sections subject to torsional

buckling, and for singly-symmetric s~ctions subject to torsional-flexural
buckling, new design formulas are included in the proposed Specification
for determining the critical buckling stresses, Fn. These formulas are
adopted from the current AISI Specification for carbon and low alloy
steels with some necessary modifications. The plasticity reduction fac-
tor, Et/Eo' was applied to the design equations to determine the buckling
stress of stainless steels in the inelastic range.

5. Beam-Columns

The design prOVl.Sl.on in the proposed ASCE ASD Specification was

adopted from Ref. 3 for the design of cold-formed carbon steel members,
except that the tangent modulus, Et , is used to calculate the critical
buckling load. Appropriate safety factors should be used for determining
the allowable load and allowable moment.

6. Cylindrical Tubular Members

Section 3.6 of the proposed ASCE ASD Specification can be used for
the design of cylindrical tubular members having a ratio of outside di-
ameter to wall thickness (D/t) not greater than 0.88IEo/Fy. For members
subject to bending, the nominal moment is based on the ratio of
(Eo/Fy)(t/D). The buckling stress of cylindrical tubular members in the
inelastic range is dependent on the ratio of the effective proportional
 688

limit-to-yield strength, Fpr/Fy' for different grades of stainless

steels.

The design expression for determining the axial load of stainless

steel cylidrical tubular members is given by the product of the effective
area and the flexural buckling stress. The formula used to determine the
effective area is similar to that used in Ref. 3 except that the
plasticity reduction factor, Et/E o ' is applied for cold-formed stainless
steels. For combined bending and compression, the design requirements
shall satisfy the design provision for beam-columns.

Same as other types of stainless steel structural members, the safety

factors used for determining the allowable axial load in compression and
allowable moment are 2.15 and 1.85, respectively.

7. Connections

The proposed ASCE Specification includes design prOV1S10ns for

welded and bolted connections using stainless steels. These design pro-
visions were based on the results of the experimental data obtained from
the test program conducted at Cornell University by Errera, Tang,
Popowich, a.nd Winter (Refs. 15, 16).

(a) Welded Connections

The design requirements for using butt welds, fillet welds, and re-
sistance welds are provided in the proposed ASCE Specification. The factor
of safety against fracture of connected parts is taken as 2.5 for the sake
of consistency with the design of cold-formed stainless steel members.
The design of fillet welds is based on the shear strengths of the annealed
base metal and the weld metal. Because transverse fillet welds are
stressed more uniformly than longitudinal fillet welds, the capacities
of fillet welds subject to transverse loading were found to be higher than
that for longitudinal loading. This finding has been reflected in the
Specification for the design of transverse fillet welds. The allowable
shear strength of resistance welds was adopted from the AWS Recommended
Practices of Resistance Welding (Ref. 11)

(b) Bolted Connections

The design requirements for bolted connections deal with a) the

minimum spacing and edge distance, b) tension in connected parts, c)
bearing in bolted connections, and d) shear and tension in bolts. The
factor of safety used for bolted connections is taken as 2.4. These de-
sign provisions were derived on the basis of four types of failure modes
observed from the results of tests (Ref. 16). The minimum edge distance
of each individual connected part, emin' is to prevent the shear failure
of connected parts.

To prevent tension failure in the connected parts, two separate de-

sign equations are given for double and single shear connections. The
allowable bearing stresses are determined on the basis of the longitudinal
 689

tensile strength, Fu ' of connected parts. Different bearing stresses are

specified for single and double shear connections. The allowable shear
and tension stresses in stainless steel bolts are specified according to
the ASTM Specifications A276 and A193 requirements (Refs. 9, 10).

III. DEVELOPMENT OF LRFD CRITERIA FOR STAINLESS STEELS

The LRFD method is an improved approach for the design of steel

structures because it involves probabilistic treatments for uncertain
variables in the design formulas. The theoretical basis of this design
method has been established and can be found in numerous references (Refs.
12, 14, 26, 27). Basically, the model of the failure probability is used
to determine the risk of failure of structures. The safety index, ~, de-
rived from the probability of failure is used as a relative measure of
the safety for design. The LRFD criteria can be based on the first order
probabilistic design approach, for which only mean value and coefficient
of variation of variables are required. These variables reflect the un-
certainties in mechanical properties, loading, design, and fabrication.
The LRFD criteria for the design of stainless steel structural members
and connections are being developed by the authors. It· is expected that
the proposed LRFD specification will be completed in 1989.

IV. CONCLUSIONS

The ASCE allowable stress design specification for cold-formed

stainless steel structural members with its commentary has been prepared
and reported in Ref. 22. This paper briefly summarizes some of the design
provisions which are proposed in the ASCE ASD Specification for the use
of four types of austenitic stainless steels and three types of ferritic
stainless steels. Some of the major differences of design provisions
between stainless and carbon steel specifications are also cited. The
LRFD criteria are being developed for the design of cold-formed stainless
steel structural members and connections.

V. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The research work reported herein was conducted in the Department

of Civil Engineering at the University of Missouri-Rolla under the spon-
sorship of the American Society of Civil Engineers. The financial as-
sistance provided by the Chromium Center of South Africa, the Nickel
Development Institute of Canada, and the Specialty Steel Industry of the
United States is gratefully acknowledged.

Special thanks are extended to members of the ASCE Steering Committee

(Dr. I~an M. Viest, Mr. Don S. Wolford, and Mr. John P. Ziemianski), Mr.
Edwin Jones of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Dr. W. K. Armitage
of the Chromium Center, and Mr. Johannes P. Schade of the Nickel Devel-
opment Institute for their technical guidance.
 690

APPENDIX I. REFERENCES

1. American Institute of Steel Construction, Manual of .Steel

Constructuion -- Load and Resistance Factor Design, First Edition,
1986.

2. American Institute of Steel Construction, Specification for the

Design, Fabrication and Erection of Structural Steel for Buildings,
November, 1978.

3. American Iron and Steel Institute, Cold-Formed Steel Design Manual,

1986 Edition.

4. American Iron and Steel Institute, Specification for the Design

of Light Gage Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural Members, 1968
Edition.

5. American Iron and Steel Institute, Stainless Steel Cold-Formed

Structural Design Manual, 1974 Edition.

6. American Society for Testing and Materials, "Standard Specification

for Austenitic Stainless Steel, Sheet, Strip, Plate, and Flat Bar
for Structural Applications," ASTM Designation: A666-84.

7. American Society for Testing and Materials, "Standard Specification

for Stainless and Heat-Resisting Chromium Steel Plate, Sheet, and
Strip," ASTM Designation: A176-85a.

8. American Society for Testing and Materials, "Standard Specification

for Stainless and Heat-Resisting Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Steel
Plate, Sheet, and Strip for Pressure Vessels," ASTM Designation:
A240-86.

9. American Society for Testing and Materials', "Standard Specification

for Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steel Bars and Shapes," ASTM
Designation: A276-85a.

10. American Society for Testing and Materials, "Standard Specification

for Alloy-Steel and Stainless Steel Bolting Materials for High-
Temperature Service," ASTM Designation: A193/A193M-86.

11. American Welding Society, "Recommended Practices for Resistance

Welding," C-1.1-66, 1966.

12. Aug, A. H. S. and Cornell, C. A., "Reliability Bases of Structural

Safety and Design," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE Pro-
ceedings, Vol. 100, No. ST9, pp. 1755-1769, September, 1974.

13. Bleich, F., Buckling Strength of Metal Structures, McGraw-Hill Book

Company, New York, 1952.
 691

14. Ellingwood, B. R. and Ang, A. H. S. "Risk-Based Evaluation of De-

sign Criteria," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE Pro-
ceedings, Vol. 100, No. ST9, pp. 1771-1778, September, 1974.
15. Errera, S. J., Popowich, D. W., and Winter, G., "Bolted and Welded
Stainless Steel Connections," Journal of the Structural Division,
ASCE Proceedings, Vol. 100, No. ST6,pp. 1279-1296, June, 1974.
16. Errera, S. J., Tang, B. M., and Popowich, D. W., "Strength of Bolted
and Welded Connections in Stainless Steel," Department of Struc-
tural Engineering, Report No. 335, Cornell University, Ithaca, New
York, August, 1970.
17. Galambos, T. V., "Proposed Criteria for Load and Resistance Factor
Design of Steel Building Structures," Bulletin No. 27, Washington
University, St. Louis, January, 1978.
18. Hsiao, L. E., Yu, W. W., and Galambos, T. V., "Load and Resistance
Factor Design of Cold-Formed Steel: Calibration of the AISI Design
Provisions," Ninth Progress Report, University of Missouri-Rolla,
February, 1988.
19. Hsiao, L. E., Yu, W. W., and Galambos, T. V., "Load and Resistance
Factor Design of Cold-Formed Steel: Load and Resistance Factor
Design Specification for Cold-Formed Steel Structural Members with
Commentary," Tenth Progress Report, University of Missouri-Rolla,
February, 1988.
20. Johnson, A. L., "The Structural Performance of Austenitic Stainless
Steel Members," Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York,
February 1967. Also Department of Structural Engineering Report
No. 327, Cornell University, November, 1966.
21. Kuentz, A. C., "Structural Stainless -- Guidelines for Design,"
Stainless Steel for Architecture, American Society for Testing and
Materials, ASTM STP 454, August, 1969.
22. Lin, S. H., Yu, W. W., and Galambos, T. V., "Design of Cold-Formed
Stainless Steel Structural Members - Proposed Allowable Stress
Design Specification with Commentary," Third Progress Report,
University of Missouri-Rolla, January, 1988.
23. Ramberg, W. and Osgood, W. R., "Description of Stress-Strain Curves
by Three Parameters," NACA Technical Note, No. 902, July, 1943.
24. Rang, T. N., Galambos, T. V., and Yu, W. W., "Load and Resistance
Factor Design of Cold-Formed Steel: Study of Design Formats and
Safety Index Combined with Calibration of the AISI Formulas for
Cold Work and Effective Design Width," First Progress Report,
University of Missouri-Rolla, January, 1979.
 692

25. Rang, T. N., Galambos, T. V., and Yu, W. W., "Load and Resistance
Factor Design of Cold-Formed Steel: Statistical Analysis of Me-
chanical Properties and Thickness of Materials Combined with Cal-
ibrations of the AISI Design Provisions on Unstiffened Compression
Elements and Connections," Second Progress Report, University of
Missouri-Rolla, January, 1979.
26. Ravindra, M. K., Lind, N. C., and Siu, W., "Illustrations of Re-
liability Based Design," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE
Proceedings, Vol. 100, No. ST9, pp. 1789-1811, September, 1974.
27. Ravindra, M. K. and Galambos, T. V., "Load and Resistance Factor
Design for Steel," Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE Pro-
ceedings, Vol. 104, No. ST9, September, 1978.
28. "Statistics for 409 and 430 Cold Rolled Materials," Middelburg
Steel and Alloys, South Africa, January, 1987.
29. "Statistical Summary -- Mechanical Properties of Types 409 and 439
Stainless Steels," Allegheny Ludlum Steel, Pittsburgh, PA., Janu-
ary, 1984.
30. van der Merwe, P., "Deveiopment of Design Criteria for Ferritic
Stainless Steel -- Cold-Formed Structural Members and Connections, "
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Missouri-Rolla, 1987.
31. Wang, S. T., "Cold-Rolled Austenitic Stainless Steel: Material
Properties and Structural Performance," Department of Structural
Engineering, Report No. 334, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York,
July, 1969.
32. Wang, S. T., Errera, S. J., and Winter, G., "Behavior of Cold-
Rolled Stainless Steel Members," Journal of the Structural Divi-
sion, ASCE Proceedings, Vol. 101, No. ST11, pp. 2337-2357,
November, 1975.
33. Yu, W. W., Cold-Formed Steel Design, Wiley-Interscience, New York,
1985.
 693

APPENDIX II. NOTATION

The following symbols are used in this paper:

Effective area
Effective width
Minimum edge distance from edge
Initial modulus of elasticity
Secant modulus
Tangent modulus
Compressive stress at the edge of the element
Nominal buckling stress
Effective proportional limit
Tensile strength
Allowable shear buckling stress
Yield strength
Shear yield strength
Initial shear modulus
Shear secant modulus
Depth of the flat portion of the web measured along
the plane of the web
Buckling coefficient
Effective length factor
Unbraced length of the member
Critical moment
Nominal moment
Nominal axial load
Radius of gyration
Elastic section modulus of the effective section calculated
at a stress Mc/S f in the extreme compression fiber
Elactic section modulus of the effective section
Elastic section modulus of full, unreduced section
Thickness of the element
Allowable shear force
Flat width of the element
Ocr = Critical buckling stress
~cr = Critical buckling stress for shear
~ Safety index
~ Plasticity reduction factor
~ Poisson's ratio
A Slenderness factor
 694

TABLE 1

Design Yield Strengths

Type of
Stress
Types 201, 301, 304, and 316 + Types 409,
430 and
Annealed 1/16-Hard 1/4-Hard 1/2-Hard 439 ++

Longitudinal 30 40* 45 75 110 30

Tension

Transverse 30 40* 45 75 110 30

Tension

Transverse 30 40* 45 90 120 30

Compression

Longitudinal 30 36* 41 50 65 30
Compression

Shear Yield 17 23* 25 42 56 17

Strength, F
yv

1 ksi 6.895 MPa

+ Based on ASTM A666-84.

++ Based on ASTM A240-86.
* Flat bars.
 695

TABLE 2

Tested Mechanical Properties of Ferritic Stainless Steels

Yield Strength Tensile Strength

Type of F F No. of Ref.
y u
Stainless Tests No.
Steels Mean St. Dev. Mean St. Dev.
(ksi) (ksi) (ksi) (ksi)

Type 409
LT 34.2 2.50 58.6 1. 93 15 30
TT 39.7 3.33 64.3 2.70 4977 28,30
LC 34.9 2.06 14 30
TC 36.8 3.05 12 30

Types 430 and 439

LT 45.8 1. 74 74.7 0.82 26 30
TT 52.2 3.92 78.4 4.23 4209 28,29,30
LC 45.6 2.92 29 30
TC 52.3 1. 99 27 30

1 ksi = 6.895 MPa;

St. Dev. = Standard Deviation.
LT. Longitudinal Tension; TT. Transverse Tension.
LC. Longitudinal Compression; TC. Transverse Compression.

Note: For Types 409, 430, and 439 ferritic stainless steels, Ref. 8
specifies a minimum yield strength of 30 ksi in transverse
tension for plate, sheet, and strip.
 696

TABLE 3

Initial Moduli of Elasticity

Type of Initial Modulus of Elasticity, E , ksi x 10 3

o
Stress
Types 201, 301, 304, and 316 Types 409, 430,
and 439
Annealed & 1/4-Hard &
1/16-Hard 1/2-Hard

Longitudinal 28.0 27.0 27.0

Tension

Transverse 28.0 28.0 29.0

Tension

Transverse 28.0 28.0 29.0

Compression

Longitudinal 28.0 27.0 27.0

Compression

1 ksi = 6.895 MPa

TABLE 4

Initial Shear Moduli

Type of Initial Shear Modulus, Go' ksi x 10 3

Stress
Types 201, 301, 304, and 316 Types 409, 430,
and 439
Annealed & 1/4-Hard &
1/16-Hard 1/2-Hard

Longitudinal 10.8 10.5 10.5

Tension

Transverse 10.8 10.8 11.2

Tension

Transverse 10.8 10.8 11.2

Compression

Longitudinal 10.8 10.5 10.5

Compression

1 ksi = 6.895 MPa