DCN UNIT -1 QUESTION BANK

Q1. Define the term Data Communication.

A. The term telecommunication means communication at a distance. The word data refers
to information presented in whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and using
the data. Data communications are the exchange of data between two devices via some
form of transmission medium such as a wire cable.

Q2. Briefly describe the five components of data communication

A. There are mainly five components of a data communication system:

1. Message
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission Medium
5. Set of rules (Protocol)

1. Message :
This is most useful asset of a data communication system. The message
simply refers to data or piece of information which is to be communicated.
A message could be in any form, it may be in form of a text file, an audio
file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender :
To transfer message from source to destination, someone must be there
who will play role of a source. Sender plays part of a source in data
communication system. It is simple a device that sends data message.
The device could be in form of a computer, mobile, telephone, laptop,
video camera, or a workstation, etc.

3. Receiver :
It is destination where finally message sent by source has arrived. It is a
device that receives message. Same as sender, receiver can also be in
form of a computer, telephone mobile, workstation, etc.

4. Transmission Medium :
In entire process of data communication, there must be something which
could act as a bridge between sender and receiver, Transmission medium
plays that part. It is physical path by which data or message travels from
sender to receiver. Transmission medium could be guided (with wires) or
unguided (without wires), for example, twisted pair cable, fiber optic
cable, radio waves, microwaves, etc.

5. Set of rules (Protocol) :

To govern data communications, various sets of rules had been already
designed by the designers of the communication systems, which
represent a kind of agreement between communicating devices. These
are defined as protocol. In simple terms, the protocol is a set of rules that
govern data communication. If two different devices are connected but
there is no protocol among them, there would not be any kind of
communication between those two devices. Thus the protocol is
necessary for data communication to take place.

Q3. Briefly describe following terms in context of data flow: 1. Simplex 2.

Half-Duplex 3. Full-Duplex

A. Transmission mode means transferring data between two devices. It is

also known as a communication mode. Buses and networks are designed to
allow communication to occur between individual devices that are
interconnected.
There are three types of transmission mode:-
 1. Simplex Mode –
In Simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-
way street. Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit, the
other can only receive. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity
of the channel to send data in one direction.
Example: Keyboard and traditional monitors. The keyboard can only
introduce input, the monitor can only give the output.

Advantages:
 Simplex mode is the easiest and most reliable mode of communication.
 It is the most cost-effective mode, as it only requires one communication
channel.
 There is no need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving
devices, which simplifies the communication process.
 Simplex mode is particularly useful in situations where feedback or
response is not required, such as broadcasting or surveillance.
Disadvantages:
 Only one-way communication is possible.
 There is no way to verify if the transmitted data has been received
correctly.
 Simplex mode is not suitable for applications that require bidirectional
communication.

2. Half-Duplex Mode –
In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but
not at the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only
receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex mode is used in cases where
there is no need for communication in both directions at the same
time. The entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each
direction.
Example: Walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time and
messages are sent in both directions.
Advantages:
 Half-duplex mode allows for bidirectional communication, which is useful
in situations where devices need to send and receive data.
 It is a more efficient mode of communication than simplex mode, as the
channel can be used for both transmission and reception.
 Half-duplex mode is less expensive than full-duplex mode, as it only
requires one communication channel.
Disadvantages:
 Half-duplex mode is less reliable than Full-Duplex mode, as both devices
cannot transmit at the same time.
 There is a delay between transmission and reception, which can cause
problems in some applications.
 There is a need for coordination between the transmitting and receiving
devices, which can complicate the communication process.

. Full-Duplex Mode –
In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
In full_duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the
link with signals going in another direction, this sharing can occur in two
ways:
 Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths,
one for sending and the other for receiving.
 Or the capacity is divided between signals traveling in both directions.

Full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required

all the time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between
the two directions.
Example: Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, through which both can talk and listen at the
same time.

Advantages:
 Full-duplex mode allows for simultaneous bidirectional communication,
which is ideal for real-time applications such as video conferencing or
online gaming.
 It is the most efficient mode of communication, as both devices can
transmit and receive data simultaneously.
 Full-duplex mode provides a high level of reliability and accuracy, as there
is no need for error correction mechanisms.
Disadvantages:
 Full-duplex mode is the most expensive mode, as it requires two
communication channels.
 It is more complex than simplex and half-duplex modes, as it requires two
physically separate transmission paths or a division of channel capacity.
 Full-duplex mode may not be suitable for all applications, as it requires a
high level of bandwidth and may not be necessary for some types of
communication.

Q. What is network? Describe network criteria.

A. A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by

communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable
of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. A link
can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.

There are a lot of criteria that make a network better than others, but; there are three basic yet
important criteria to be fulfilled for a network:

1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Security
Performance
It measures how well a network can support communication between two nodes in the
Network or with nodes of other networks in the global scope. The two major tasks in a
network are the Transmission and reception of information. We need to focus
on how fast a message is transmitted and how fast a node can receive a request
and find the needed information. Hence, to measure the performance of a network, here
are the major factors to be considered:

1. Transit time: The total time a node takes to transmit a message from the
beginning until the last character of the message. Transit stands for
Transmission.
2. Response time: The total time a node takes to process an inquiry or a request
from another node/ device and respond. It is the time between the inquiry's
end and the response's beginning.
3. Throughput: Throughput measures how much data is transferred successfully
from the sender node to the receiver node in a particular time frame. It is
measured in bits per second or data per second.
4. Bandwidth: The maximum possible throughput capacity of the Network. We
can measure it in bits, megabits, or gigabits per second. It defines the highest
limit.
5. Delay/ Latency: As we discussed, Throughput is the number of data packets
successfully delivered in a given time. Delay is the measure of time taken to do
the delivery.

Reliability
It is the degree to which a network is trustworthy, consistent, and dependable. The
Reliability of a network is measured by the frequency of failures it is undergoing and
the time it takes to recover from the failures. Overall, the Robustness of the
Network at times of catastrophic events is measured to check how reliable the
Network is.

Security
It measures how the Network secures the data amid failures and attacks and the
policies and procedures it implements to protect itself from damages and
unauthorized access. In Reliability, the frequency of failures is checked. In Security,
network attacks and data breaches are checked.
Q. What is physical topology of network? Explain following physical
topologies of network: 1. Mesh 2. Star 3. Bus 4. Ring 5. Hybrid

A. Physical topology refers to the physical layout or arrangement of devices, cables, and
other network components in a network. It defines how these components are physically
connected to each other and how data is transmitted in the network. Different types of
physical topologies are used in networking, each with its own advantages and disadvantages.
Some common physical topologies include:

 Point to Point Topology

 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a

particular channel. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc
Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels

are known as links.
 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1.
In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total
number of ports required by each device is 4. The total number of ports
required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, then the total number of dedicated links required to connect them
is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each
other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred
among the devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various
internet service providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels.
This topology is also used in military communication systems and aircraft
navigation systems.

Star Topology

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a
cable. This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the
central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such
as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as
an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45
cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular
Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access), etc.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number
of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the
total number of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole
system will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office
where all computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used
in wireless networks where all devices are connected to a wireless access
point.

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device
is connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point
connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the
topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control)
protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha,
CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Advantages of Bus Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number
of cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N
drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to
build small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid
this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha,
Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices
are connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is
also used in cable television networks.

Ring Topology

In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two

neighboring devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a
large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the
last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass
through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made
bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is
called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing
protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed
from one node to another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility
for performing the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the
transmission is done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the
ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token
release releases the token just after transmitting the data and Delayed
token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is received
from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to
fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb
the whole topology.
 Less secure.

Hybrid Topology

This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of

topologies we have studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes
are free to take any form. It means these can be individuals such as Ring or
Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen
above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed
earlier.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of
cabling and network devices.
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The
network may have a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected
to the backbone through a switch or router. Within each building, there may
be a bus or ring topology connecting the different rooms and offices. The
wireless access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices. This
hybrid topology allows for efficient communication between different buildings
while providing flexibility and redundancy within each building.

Q. Describe following types of network: 1. LAN 2. WAN 3. MAN

A. The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with

different computers via any medium. LAN, MAN, and WAN are the three
major types of networks designed to operate over the area they cover. There
are some similarities and dissimilarities between them. One of the major
differences is the geographical area they cover, i.e. LAN covers the smallest
area, MAN covers an area larger than LAN and WAN comprises the largest
of all.

Local Area Network (LAN) –

LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that
personal computers and workstations can share data, tools, and programs.
The group of computers and devices are connected together by a switch, or
stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme as defined by the TCP/IP
protocol. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them to the
larger WAN.
Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is limited.
By definition, the connections must be high-speed and relatively inexpensive
hardware (Such as hubs, network adapters, and Ethernet cables). LANs cover
a smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few kilometres) and are
privately owned. One can use it for an office building, home, hospital, school,
etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A Communication medium used for
LAN has twisted-pair cables and coaxial cables. It covers a short distance, and
so the error and noise are minimized.
Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are
normally 100 or 1000 Mbps. Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The
smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can
accommodate thousands of computers. LAN has a range up to 2km. A LAN
typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security,
but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. The fault tolerance of a
LAN is more and there is less congestion in this network. For example A bunch
of students playing Counter-Strike in the same room (without internet).
Advantages:
 Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed communication.
 Easy to set up and manage.
 Can be used to share peripheral devices such as printers and scanners.
 Provides increased security and fault tolerance compared to WANs.
Disadvantages:
 Limited geographical coverage.
 Limited scalability and may require significant infrastructure upgrades to
accommodate growth.
 May experience congestion and network performance issues with
increased usage.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –

MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that covered by
a LAN and a smaller area as compared to WAN. MAN has a range of 5-50km.
It connects two or more computers that are apart but reside in the same or
different cities. It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP
(Internet Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need high-
speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN range in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design
and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.
The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the
network. It is costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization.
The data transfer rate and the propagation delay of MAN are moderate.
Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are Modem and
Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are part of the telephone company network
that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV
network in a city.
Advantages:
 Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographical area than
LAN.
 Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
 Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in some cases.
Disadvantages:
 Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
 May experience congestion and network performance issues with
increased usage.
 May have limited fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

Wide Area Network (WAN) –

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large
geographical area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state
or country. WAN has a range of above 50 km. A WAN could be a connection
of LAN connecting to other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves and may
be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to
the public. The technology is high-speed and relatively expensive.
There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN
is difficult to design and maintain. Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a
WAN is less and there is more congestion in the network. A Communication
medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link. Due to long-distance
transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed since it involves increased
distance and increased number of servers and terminals etc. The speed of
WAN ranges from a few kilobits per second (Kbps) to megabits per second
(Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems faced here. Devices
used for the transmission of data through WAN are Optic wires, Microwaves,
and Satellites. An example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM) network and Point-to-Point WAN is a dial-up line that connects a
home computer to the Internet.
Advantages:
 Covers large geographical areas and can connect remote locations.
 Provides connectivity to the internet.
 Offers remote access to resources and applications.
 Can be used to support multiple users and applications simultaneously.
Disadvantages:
 Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
 Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
 May experience higher latency and longer propagation delays due to longer
distances and multiple network hops.
 May have lower fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.

Q. Explain OSI model with its layers in detail.

A. OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It was developed by ISO
– ‘International Organization for Standardization’, in the year 1984. It is a 7-
layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality to perform. All
these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one person to
another across the globe.

What is OSI Model?

The OSI model, created in 1984 by ISO, is a reference framework that explains
the process of transmitting data between computers. It is divided into seven
layers that work together to carry out specialised network functions, allowing
for a more systematic approach to networking.
What are the 7 layers of the OSI Model?
The OSI model consists of seven abstraction layers arranged in a top-down
order:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
Physical Layer – Layer 1
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The
physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data,
this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send
them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of

the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver
thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e.
the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different,
devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
 Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows
between the two connected devices. The various transmission modes
possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message. The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-
free from one node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives
in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using
its MAC address.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
1. Logical Link Control (LLC)
2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also
encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address
Resolution Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?”
and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for
a sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This
can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning
and end of the frame.
 Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds
physical addresses (MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the
header of each frame.
 Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error
control in which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the
data may get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data
that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by
multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to
determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.
Network Layer – Layer 3
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection
of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available.
The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network
layer.

Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable

from source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as
routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely,
the network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s
IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an
address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Transport Layer – Layer 4

The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to
as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete
message. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the
successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from
the upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error
control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented data to
the Network Layer.
At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header
and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It
also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from

the (session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of
the segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport
layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct
process, the transport layer header includes a type of address called
service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this address,
the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1. Connection-Oriented Service
2. Connectionless Service
1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes
 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment,
back to the source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of
transmission is reliable and secure.
2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data
Transfer. In this type of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge
receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much faster communication
between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless Service.
Session Layer – Layer 5
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of
sessions, and authentication, and also ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

 Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer

allows the two processes to establish, use and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are
considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization
points help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized
properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss
is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

Presentation Layer – Layer 6

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format
to transmit over the network.

Functions of the Presentation Layer

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another
form or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the
decrypted data is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting
as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted
on the network.
Application Layer – Layer 7
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the
Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These
applications produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of application layer are given below.

 Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application allows a
user to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services : Provide email service.
 Directory Services : This application provides distributed database
sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.

Q. Explain TCP/IP protocol suite with its layers in detail

A. The OSI Model we just looked at is just a reference/logical model. It was

designed to describe the functions of the communication system by dividing
the communication procedure into smaller and simpler components.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in
the 1960s and is based on standard protocols. It stands for Transmission
Control Protocol/Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP model is a concise version of
the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI
model.
The number of layers is sometimes referred to as five or four. Here In this
article, we’ll study five layers. The Physical Layer and Data Link Layer are
referred to as one single layer as the ‘Physical Layer’ or ‘Network Interface
Layer’ in the 4-layer reference.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device
to another. The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and
accurate so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent
by the sender. To ensure that, each message reaches its final destination
accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines them
at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while
transferring from one end to another end.
What is the Difference between TCP and IP?
TCP and IP are different protocols of Computer Networks. The basic
difference between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet
Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In simple words, IP finds the
destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send and receive the mail.
UDP is another protocol, which does not require IP to communicate with
another computer. IP is required by only TCP. This is the basic difference
between TCP and IP.
How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?
Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP
Model, the TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and
the same packets have to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the
same data, and this thing happens to maintain the accuracy of the data.
TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure, where the data first
go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get organized in
the same way at the receiver’s end.
For more, you can refer to TCP/IP in Computer Networking.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
3. Network/Internet Layer(IP)
4. Data Link Layer (MAC)
5. Physical Layer
1. Physical Layer
It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is
responsible for generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on
behalf of the sender and the Network Access layer on the behalf of the
receiver. During this article, we will be talking on the behalf of the receiver.
2. Data Link Layer
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by the
data-link layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by the data-
link layer. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2
framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
3. Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the
protocols which are responsible for the logical transmission of data over the
entire network. The main protocols residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP: IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering
packets from the source host to the destination host by looking at the IP
addresses in the packet headers. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4
is the one that most websites are using currently. But IPv6 is growing as
the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to the
number of users.
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is
encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts
with information about network problems.
 ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the
hardware address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several
types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set
of protocols that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for
routing packets of data from one device to another across a network. It does
this by assigning each device a unique IP address, which is used to identify
the device and determine the route that packets should take to reach it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend.
When you click “send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets of data,
which are then sent to the Internet Layer for routing. The Internet Layer
assigns an IP address to each packet and uses routing tables to determine
the best route for the packet to take to reach its destination. The packet is then
forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all
of the packets have been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble
them into the original email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email
from your computer to your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and routing
tables to determine the best route for the packets to take, and it ensures that
the packets are delivered to the correct destination. Without the Internet Layer,
it would not be possible to send data across the Internet.
4. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments
and retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and
without error. End-to-end communication is referred to as such. Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol are transport layer
protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though
they were physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way
that resembles character-by-character transmission rather than separate
packets. A starting point that establishes the connection, the whole
transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection
make up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP, the other
transport layer protocol. Connections between receiving and sending
hosts are not verified by UDP. Applications that transport little amounts of
data use UDP rather than TCP because it eliminates the processes of
establishing and validating connections.
5. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible
for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the
upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The three main
protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used
by the World Wide Web to manage communications between web
browsers and servers. HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a
combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is efficient in
cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and
carry out bank transactions.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software
similar to Telnet. The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to
maintain the encrypted connection. It sets up a secure session over a
TCP/IP connection.
 NTP: NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the
clocks on our computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in
situations like bank transactions. Assume the following situation without
the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a transaction, where your
computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at 2:28
PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
Q. Explain types of connection

A. A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a

communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another.
For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in some way
to the same link at the same time.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and
multipoint.

1.Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link

between two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length
of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave
or satellite links.
2.Multipoint:
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link as shown in the following figure.
In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a
spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared
connection.

Q. What is protocol? What are elements of protocol in context of

data communication

A. A protocol is synonymous with rule. It consists of a set of rules that govern data
communications. It determines what is communicated, how it is communicated and
when it is communicated. The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and
timing.
1. Syntax: Syntax basically represents the format of the data means in which
order data is presented. It also indicates how to read the data. It simply
means the way to represent data. For Example, let us suppose a data packet
has 16 bits, in which the first 4 bits are the sender’s address, the last 4 bits
are the receiver’s address and the rest is the message. So, this is a syntax to
represent data bits.
2. Semantics: Semantics basically refers to the meaning of each section
mentioned in syntax. It includes control information for coordination and error
handling. It also specifies which file defines which action.
3. Timing: Timing simply means when the data is to be sent and how fast
the data can be sent. For Example, if the Sender sends the data at 100
MBPS and the receiver receives it at 1 MBPS, then the data gets overflowed
at the receiver end.