What is a Network?

A network is a collection of interconnected devices that communicate with each other to share
resources, exchange data, and provide services.

Network Topology

Network topology refers to the physical and logical arrangement of devices in a network. There are
several types of network topologies:

1. Physical Topology
 Bus Topology: A single cable connects all devices in a linear sequence.

 Definition: A bus topology is a type of network topology in which all devices are connected
to a single cable or backbone, which is called the bus. This cable acts as a shared
communication medium, and all devices share the bandwidth of the bus.

Characteristics:
1. Single Cable: A single cable connects all devices in a bus topology.
2. Shared Medium: The bus is a shared communication medium, and all devices share the
bandwidth.
3. Linear Configuration: Devices are connected in a linear sequence, with each device
connected to the bus through a tap or connector.
4. Termination: The bus must be terminated at both ends to prevent signal reflection and
ensure proper signal transmission.

Advantages:

1. Easy to Install: Bus topology is easy to install, as it requires only a single cable.
2. Cost-Effective: Bus topology is cost-effective, as it requires less cable than other
topologies.
3. Simple to Troubleshoot: Bus topology is simple to troubleshoot, as the problem can be
easily identified by checking the bus.
Disadvantages:

 1. Single Point of Failure: If the bus fails, the entire network fails.
 2. Difficult to Add or Remove Devices: Adding or removing devices can be difficult, as it
requires reconfiguring the entire network.
 3. Limited Scalability: Bus topology is not suitable for large networks, as it can become
difficult to manage and maintain.
 4. Noise and Interference: Bus topology is prone to noise and interference, which can
affect network performance.
Types of Bus Topology:

 1. Simple Bus Topology: A simple bus topology consists of a single bus, with all devices
connected to it.
 2. Distributed Bus Topology: A distributed bus topology consists of multiple buses, with
each bus connecting a group of devices.
How Bus Topology Works:

 1. Signal Transmission: When a device wants to send data, it sends a signal onto the bus.
 2. Signal Reception: All devices on the bus receive the signal, but only the intended
recipient processes the data.
 3. Collision Detection: If two devices send signals at the same time, a collision occurs,
and the devices must retransmit the data.
Applications of Bus Topology:

 1. LANs: Bus topology is used in small LANs, where the number of devices is limited.
 2. WANs: Bus topology is used in WANs, where the distance between devices is large.
 3. Industrial Control Systems: Bus topology is used in industrial control systems, where
devices need to communicate with each other in real-time.
Comparison with Other Topologies:

 1. Star Topology: Bus topology is more prone to single point of failure than star topology.
 2. Ring Topology: Bus topology is more difficult to install and maintain than ring topology.
 3. Mesh Topology: Bus topology is less scalable than mesh topology.

Star Topology: All devices connect to a central device (hub or switch).

 Definition: A star topology is a type of network topology in which all devices are connected
to a central device, called the hub or switch, which acts as a central connection point. This
central device connects to multiple devices, and each device connects to the central device,
forming a star-like structure.

 Characteristics:

 1. Central Device: A central device, such as a hub or switch, acts as a central connection
point.
 2. Multiple Devices: Multiple devices connect to the central device, forming a star-like
structure.
 3. Point-to-Point Connection: Each device has a point-to-point connection to the central
device.
 4. Centralized Management: The central device manages the network, and all devices rely
on it for communication.
Advantages:

 1. Easy to Install and Manage: Star topology is easy to install and manage, as all devices
connect to a central device.
 2. Fault Tolerance: If one device fails, it does not affect the entire network, as the central
device can continue to operate.
 3. Easy to Add or Remove Devices: Adding or removing devices is easy, as it only
requires connecting or disconnecting from the central device.
 4. Improved Performance: Star topology can improve network performance, as the central
device can prioritize traffic and reduce collisions.
Disadvantages:

 1. Single Point of Failure: If the central device fails, the entire network fails.
  2. Dependence on Central Device: All devices rely on the central device for
communication, which can be a single point of failure.
 3. Cost: Star topology can be more expensive than other topologies, as it requires a central
device.
 4. Scalability Limitations: Star topology can become difficult to manage and maintain as
the number of devices increases.
Types of Star Topology:

 1. Simple Star Topology: A simple star topology consists of a single central device, with
multiple devices connected to it.
 2. Extended Star Topology: An extended star topology consists of multiple central
devices, with each central device connecting to multiple devices.
 3. Distributed Star Topology: A distributed star topology consists of multiple central
devices, with each central device connecting to multiple devices, and each device
connecting to multiple central devices.
How Star Topology Works:

 1. Signal Transmission: When a device wants to send data, it sends a signal to the central
device.
 2. Signal Routing: The central device routes the signal to the intended recipient.
 3. Signal Reception: The intended recipient receives the signal and processes the data.
Applications of Star Topology:

1. LANs: Star topology is commonly used in LANs, where multiple devices need to connect
to a central device.
2. WANs: Star topology is used in WANs, where multiple devices need to connect to a
central device over a long distance.
3. Wireless Networks: Star topology is used in wireless networks, where multiple devices
connect to a central wireless access point.
Comparison with Other Topologies:

 1. Bus Topology: Star topology is more fault-tolerant than bus topology, as a single device
failure does not affect the entire network.
 2. Ring Topology: Star topology is more scalable than ring topology, as it can support
more devices.
 3. Mesh Topology: Star topology is less scalable than mesh topology, as it can become
difficult to manage and maintain as the number of devices increases.

 Ring Topology: Devices connect in a circular configuration, and data travels in one
direction.

Definition: A ring topology is a type of network topology in which devices are connected in a
circular configuration, and data travels in one direction around the ring. Each device acts as a
repeater, amplifying and retransmitting the signal to the next device.

Characteristics:

1. Circular Configuration: Devices are connected in a circular configuration, forming a ring.

2. Unidirectional Data Flow: Data travels in one direction around the ring, from one device to the
next.
3. Each Device Acts as a Repeater: Each device acts as a repeater, amplifying and
retransmitting the signal to the next device.
4. No Central Device: There is no central device or hub in a ring topology.
Advantages:

1. High-Speed Data Transfer: Ring topology allows for high-speed data transfer, as data travels
in one direction around the ring.
2. Fault Tolerance: If one device fails, the ring can still operate, as data can be routed around the
failed device.
3. Scalability: Ring topology can support a large number of devices, making it scalable.
4. Reduced Cable Length: Ring topology requires less cable length than other topologies,
making it cost-effective.
Disadvantages:

1. Single Point of Failure: If one device fails, it can affect the entire network, as data cannot be
routed around the failed device.
2. Difficult to Install and Manage: Ring topology can be difficult to install and manage, as it
requires careful planning and configuration.
3. Limited Flexibility: Ring topology is less flexible than other topologies, as devices are
connected in a fixed configuration.
4. Difficult to Add or Remove Devices: Adding or removing devices can be difficult, as it
requires reconfiguring the entire ring.
Types of Ring Topology:

1. Simple Ring Topology: A simple ring topology consists of a single ring, with devices
connected in a circular configuration.
2. Dual Ring Topology: A dual ring topology consists of two rings, with devices connected in a
circular configuration, and data traveling in both directions around the ring.
3. FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface) Ring Topology: FDDI ring topology is a type of ring
topology that uses fiber optic cables and operates at high speeds.
How Ring Topology Works:

1. Token Passing: In a ring topology, a token is passed from one device to the next, allowing
each device to transmit data.
2. Data Transmission: When a device receives the token, it transmits data around the ring.
3. Data Reception: The intended recipient receives the data and processes it.
Applications of Ring Topology:

1. MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks): Ring topology is commonly used in MANs, where high-
speed data transfer is required.
2. WANs (Wide Area Networks): Ring topology is used in WANs, where data needs to be
transmitted over long distances.
3. FDDI Networks: Ring topology is used in FDDI networks, which operate at high speeds and
require high reliability.
Comparison with Other Topologies:

1. Bus Topology: Ring topology is more fault-tolerant than bus topology, as data can be routed
around a failed device.
2. Star Topology: Ring topology is less scalable than star topology, as it can become difficult to
manage and maintain as the number of devices increases.
3. Mesh Topology: Ring topology is less flexible than mesh topology, as devices are connected in
a fixed configuration.

 Mesh Topology: Each device connects to every other device, providing multiple paths for
data transmission.

Definition: A mesh topology is a type of network topology in which each device is connected
to every other device, forming a web-like structure. This allows for multiple paths for data to
travel, providing redundancy and fault tolerance.

Characteristics:

 1. Each Device Connected to Every Other Device: Each device is connected to every
other device, forming a web-like structure.
 2. Multiple Paths for Data: Mesh topology provides multiple paths for data to travel,
allowing for redundancy and fault tolerance.
 3. Highly Fault-Tolerant: Mesh topology is highly fault-tolerant, as data can be routed
around failed devices.
 4. Scalable: Mesh topology is scalable, as new devices can be added to the network
without affecting the existing structure.
 Advantages:

 1. Highly Fault-Tolerant: Mesh topology is highly fault-tolerant, as data can be routed

around failed devices.
 2. Scalable: Mesh topology is scalable, as new devices can be added to the network
without affecting the existing structure.
 3. High-Speed Data Transfer: Mesh topology allows for high-speed data transfer, as data
can travel through multiple paths.
 4. Improved Network Reliability: Mesh topology improves network reliability, as data can
be routed around failed devices.
 Disadvantages:

 1. Complex Installation and Management: Mesh topology can be complex to install and
manage, as each device needs to be connected to every other device.
 2. High Cost: Mesh topology can be expensive, as it requires a large number of
connections and devices.
 3. Difficult to Add or Remove Devices: Adding or removing devices can be difficult, as it
requires reconfiguring the entire mesh.
 4. Cable Length and Complexity: Mesh topology requires a large amount of cable, which
can be complex to manage.
 Types of Mesh Topology:

 1. Full Mesh Topology: A full mesh topology is a type of mesh topology in which each
device is connected to every other device.
 2. Partial Mesh Topology: A partial mesh topology is a type of mesh topology in which
some devices are connected to every other device, while others are not.
 3. Hybrid Mesh Topology: A hybrid mesh topology is a type of mesh topology that
combines elements of full and partial mesh topologies.
 How Mesh Topology Works:

 1. Data Transmission: When a device wants to send data, it sends it to the nearest device.
 2. Data Routing: The receiving device routes the data to the next device, until it reaches
the intended recipient.
 3. Data Reception: The intended recipient receives the data and processes it.
 Applications of Mesh Topology:

 1. WANs (Wide Area Networks): Mesh topology is commonly used in WANs, where high-
speed data transfer and fault tolerance are required.
 2. MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks): Mesh topology is used in MANs, where high-
speed data transfer and fault tolerance are required.
 3. Wireless Networks: Mesh topology is used in wireless networks, where devices need to
communicate with each other in a decentralized manner.
 Comparison with Other Topologies:

 1. Bus Topology: Mesh topology is more fault-tolerant than bus topology, as data can be
routed around failed devices.
 2. Star Topology: Mesh topology is more scalable than star topology, as new devices can
be added to the network without affecting the existing structure.
 3. Ring Topology: Mesh topology is more flexible than ring topology, as devices can be
connected in a decentralized manner.

Hybrid Topology

Definition: A hybrid topology is a type of network topology that combines two or more different
topologies, such as star, bus, ring, and mesh, to form a single network. This allows for the
benefits of multiple topologies to be leveraged, while minimizing their drawbacks.

 Characteristics:

 1. Combination of Multiple Topologies: Hybrid topology combines two or more different

topologies to form a single network.
 2. Flexibility and Scalability: Hybrid topology offers flexibility and scalability, as it can be
designed to meet specific network requirements.
 3. Improved Fault Tolerance: Hybrid topology can provide improved fault tolerance, as it
can route data around failed devices or segments.
 4. Increased Network Reliability: Hybrid topology can increase network reliability, as it
provides multiple paths for data to travel.
 Types of Hybrid Topology:

 1. Star-Bus Hybrid Topology: A star-bus hybrid topology combines the star and bus
topologies, where multiple star networks are connected to a central bus.
 2. Star-Ring Hybrid Topology: A star-ring hybrid topology combines the star and ring
topologies, where multiple star networks are connected to a central ring.
 3. Bus-Ring Hybrid Topology: A bus-ring hybrid topology combines the bus and ring
topologies, where multiple bus networks are connected to a central ring.
 4. Mesh-Star Hybrid Topology: A mesh-star hybrid topology combines the mesh and star
topologies, where multiple mesh networks are connected to a central star.
  Advantages:

 1. Improved Fault Tolerance: Hybrid topology can provide improved fault tolerance, as it
can route data around failed devices or segments.
 2. Increased Network Reliability: Hybrid topology can increase network reliability, as it
provides multiple paths for data to travel.
 3. Flexibility and Scalability: Hybrid topology offers flexibility and scalability, as it can be
designed to meet specific network requirements.
 4. Cost-Effective: Hybrid topology can be cost-effective, as it can utilize existing
infrastructure and minimize the need for new hardware.
 Disadvantages:

 1. Complexity: Hybrid topology can be complex to design and implement, as it requires

careful planning and configuration.
 2. Higher Cost: Hybrid topology can be more expensive than other topologies, as it
requires multiple devices and connections.
 3. Difficult to Manage: Hybrid topology can be difficult to manage, as it requires
specialized knowledge and skills.
 4. Limited Standardization: Hybrid topology can have limited standardization, as it
combines different topologies and devices.
 How Hybrid Topology Works:

 1. Data Transmission: Data is transmitted through the network, using the combined
topologies.
 2. Data Routing: Data is routed through the network, using the most efficient path.
 3. Data Reception: Data is received by the intended recipient, through the combined
topologies.
 Applications of Hybrid Topology:

 1. Enterprise Networks: Hybrid topology is commonly used in enterprise networks, where

multiple departments and locations need to be connected.
 2. Campus Networks: Hybrid topology is used in campus networks, where multiple
buildings and departments need to be connected.
 3. WANs (Wide Area Networks): Hybrid topology is used in WANs, where multiple
locations need to be connected over long distances.
 Comparison with Other Topologies:

 1. Star Topology: Hybrid topology is more flexible and scalable than star topology, as it
can combine multiple topologies.
 2. Bus Topology: Hybrid topology is more fault-tolerant than bus topology, as it can route
data around failed devices or segments.
 3. Ring Topology: Hybrid topology is more flexible than ring topology, as it can combine
multiple topologies and devices.

2. Logical Topology
 Broadcast Topology: Data is sent to all devices on the network.
 Point-to-Point Topology: Data is sent between two devices only.

Network Protocols
Network protocols are the set of rules and standards that govern data communication over a
network. Some common protocols include:
1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable, error-checked data transfer
between devices.
 IP (Internet Protocol): Provides logical addressing and routing of data packets.

2. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

 Request/Response Model: Clients send requests to servers, and servers respond with
data.

3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

 File Transfer: Allows users to transfer files between devices.

4. DNS (Domain Name System)

 Domain Name Resolution: Translates domain names to IP addresses.

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

 Purpose: Web communication

 Port Number: 80
 Description: HTTP is an application-layer protocol that provides a way for devices to
communicate with web servers. It is used to transfer data, including web pages, images,
and other content, over the internet.

HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)

 Purpose: Secure web communication

 Port Number: 443
 Description: HTTPS is an encrypted version of HTTP, used for secure communication over
the internet. It provides end-to-end encryption, ensuring that data remains confidential and
tamper-proof.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

 Purpose: File transfer

 Port Number: 20 (data transfer), 21 (control connection)
 Description: FTP is an application-layer protocol that provides a way for devices to transfer
files between a client and a server. It is commonly used for uploading and downloading files
to and from a remote server.

SFTP (Secure File Transfer Protocol)

 Purpose: Secure file transfer

 Port Number: 22
 Description: SFTP is an encrypted extension of FTP, used for secure file transfer over the
internet. It provides end-to-end encryption, ensuring that data remains confidential and
tamper-proof.
SSH (Secure Shell)

 Purpose: Secure remote access

 Port Number: 22
 Description: SSH is a secure protocol that provides remote access to a computer or
network device. It allows users to access and manage remote systems, as well as transfer
files securely.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

 Purpose: Email transfer

 Port Number: 25
 Description: SMTP is an application-layer protocol that provides a way for devices to send
emails over the internet. It is used by email clients and servers to transfer email messages.

POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)

 Purpose: Email retrieval

 Port Number: 110
 Description: POP3 is an application-layer protocol that provides a way for email clients to
retrieve email messages from a server. It is commonly used for retrieving email from a
remote server.

IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)

 Purpose: Email access and management

 Port Number: 143
 Description: IMAP is an application-layer protocol that provides a way for email clients to
access and manage email messages on a server. It allows users to access and manage
their email messages from multiple devices.

DNS (Domain Name System)

 Purpose: Domain name resolution

 Port Number: 53
 Description: DNS is an application-layer protocol that provides a way for devices to
translate domain names to IP addresses. It is used to resolve domain names to IP
addresses, allowing devices to communicate with each other over the internet.

DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)

 Purpose: IP address assignment

 Port Number: 67 (server), 68 (client)
 Description: DHCP is an application-layer protocol that provides a way for devices to
automatically assign IP addresses on a network. It is commonly used in local area networks
(LANs) to assign IP addresses to devices.

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

 Purpose: Network management

  Port Number: 161 (agent), 162 (trap)
 Description: SNMP is an application-layer protocol that provides a way for devices to
manage and monitor network devices and their performance. It is commonly used for
network monitoring and management.

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

 Purpose: Error reporting and diagnostics

 Port Number: N/A (ICMP is a layer 3 protocol and does not use ports)
 Description: ICMP is a network-layer protocol that provides a way for devices to send error
messages and operational information between devices on a network. It is commonly used
for troubleshooting network connectivity issues.

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

 Purpose: MAC address resolution

 Port Number: N/A (ARP is a layer 2 protocol and does not use ports)
 Description: ARP is a network-layer protocol that provides a way for devices to map IP
addresses to MAC addresses on a local network. It is commonly used for resolving IP
addresses to MAC addresses.

RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

 Purpose: MAC address to IP address resolution

 Port Number: N/A (RARP is a layer 2 protocol and does not use ports)
 Description: RARP is a network-layer protocol that provides a way for devices to map MAC
addresses to IP addresses on a local network. It is commonly used for resolving MAC
addresses to IP addresses.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

 Purpose: Reliable data transfer

 Port Number: varies (e.g. 20 for FTP, 21 for FTP, 22 for SSH, etc.)
 Description: TCP is a transport-layer protocol that provides a way for devices to ensure
reliable data transfer between devices. It is commonly used for applications that

Network Devices
1. Network Interface Card (NIC)
 Connects devices to a network: Provides a physical connection to a network.

Types of NIC Cards:

1. Ethernet NIC: Supports Ethernet protocol, used for wired connections.

2. Fast Ethernet NIC: Supports Fast Ethernet protocol, used for wired connections at higher
speeds.
 3. Gigabit Ethernet NIC: Supports Gigabit Ethernet protocol, used for wired connections at
even higher speeds.
4. Wireless NIC (WLAN): Supports wireless communication protocols such as Wi-Fi,
Bluetooth, etc.
5. Token Ring NIC: Supports Token Ring protocol, used for wired connections in older
networks.
6. FDDI NIC: Supports Fiber Distributed Data Interface protocol, used for high-speed wired
connections.

NIC Card Components:

1. MAC (Media Access Control) Address: A unique 48-bit address assigned to each NIC
card.
2. PHY (Physical Layer) Chip: Handles the physical layer of the OSI model, including
transmission and reception of data.
3. MAC Chip: Handles the data link layer of the OSI model, including framing, error detection,
and correction.
4. Bus Interface: Connects the NIC card to the system bus (e.g. PCI, PCIe, etc.).
5. RJ-45 Connector: A standard connector used for Ethernet cables.

NIC Card Functions:

1. Data Transmission: Transmits data from the system to the network.

2. Data Reception: Receives data from the network and passes it to the system.
3. Addressing: Uses the MAC address to identify the NIC card and ensure data is delivered
to the correct device.
4. Error Detection and Correction: Detects and corrects errors that occur during data
transmission.
5. Flow Control: Regulates the amount of data transmitted to prevent network congestion.

NIC Card Speeds:

1. 10 Mbps: Supports data transfer rates of 10 megabits per second.

2. 100 Mbps: Supports data transfer rates of 100 megabits per second.
3. 1000 Mbps (1 Gbps): Supports data transfer rates of 1 gigabit per second.
4. 10 Gbps: Supports data transfer rates of 10 gigabits per second.

NIC Card Modes:

1. Half-Duplex: Allows data transmission in one direction at a time.

2. Full-Duplex: Allows data transmission in both directions simultaneously.

NIC Card Standards:

1. IEEE 802.3: Standard for Ethernet networks.

2. IEEE 802.11: Standard for wireless networks (Wi-Fi).

2. Hub
 Simple Network Device: Connects multiple devices together, but does not manage traffic.

What is a Hub?
A hub is a simple network device that connects multiple devices together, allowing them to
communicate with each other. It is a type of network switch that operates at the physical layer
(Layer 1) of the OSI model.

How does a Hub work?

A hub works by repeating incoming data signals to all connected devices. When a device sends
data to the hub, the hub receives the signal and retransmits it to all other devices connected to it.
This means that every device connected to the hub receives a copy of the data, regardless of
whether it was intended for them or not.

Types of Hubs:

1. Passive Hub: A passive hub is a simple device that connects devices together without
amplifying or regenerating the signal. It is essentially a multi-port repeater.
2. Active Hub: An active hub is a powered device that amplifies and regenerates the signal
before retransmitting it to connected devices. This helps to extend the distance over which
the signal can travel.
3. Intelligent Hub: An intelligent hub is a more advanced device that can perform some basic
network management functions, such as monitoring network traffic and detecting errors.

Characteristics of a Hub:

1. Broadcasting: Hubs broadcast incoming data to all connected devices, which can lead to
network congestion and security issues.
2. Half-Duplex: Hubs operate in half-duplex mode, meaning that devices can only transmit or
receive data, but not both at the same time.
3. Collision Domain: Hubs create a single collision domain, which means that if two devices
transmit data at the same time, a collision will occur and the data will be lost.
4. No Filtering: Hubs do not filter incoming data, which means that all devices receive all
data, regardless of whether it is intended for them or not.

Advantages of a Hub:

1. Simple and Inexpensive: Hubs are relatively simple and inexpensive devices, making
them a cost-effective option for small networks.
2. Easy to Install: Hubs are easy to install and require minimal configuration.
3. Flexibility: Hubs can be used to connect devices of different types and speeds.

Disadvantages of a Hub:

1. Security Risks: Hubs can create security risks because they broadcast all data to all
connected devices.
2. Network Congestion: Hubs can lead to network congestion because they repeat all
incoming data to all connected devices.
3. Limited Scalability: Hubs are not suitable for large networks because they can become
bottlenecked and create performance issues.
4. No Error Detection: Hubs do not detect errors in incoming data, which can lead to data
corruption and loss.

When to Use a Hub:

1. Small Networks: Hubs are suitable for small networks with a limited number of devices.
 2. Temporary Networks: Hubs can be used to create temporary networks for events or
meetings.
3. Legacy Devices: Hubs can be used to connect legacy devices that do not support more
advanced network protocols.

When Not to Use a Hub:

1. Large Networks: Hubs are not suitable for large networks because they can become
bottlenecked and create performance issues.
2. Secure Networks: Hubs are not suitable for secure networks because they can create
security risks.
3. High-Speed Networks: Hubs are not suitable for high-speed networks because they can
become bottlenecked and create performance issues.

3. Switch
 Intelligent Network Device: Connects multiple devices, manages traffic, and improves
network performance.

What is a Switch?

A switch is a network device that connects multiple devices together, allowing them to
communicate with each other. It is a type of network bridge that operates at the data link layer
(Layer 2) of the OSI model.

How does a Switch work?

A switch works by examining the destination MAC address of incoming data packets and
forwarding them to the appropriate device on the network. It uses a table called the MAC address
table or CAM (Content-Addressable Memory) table to store the MAC addresses of connected
devices.

Here's a step-by-step explanation of how a switch works:

1. Learning Phase: When a device sends data to the switch, the switch learns the MAC
address of the device and stores it in the MAC address table.
2. Forwarding Phase: When the switch receives a data packet, it examines the destination
MAC address and looks up the MAC address table to determine which port the packet
should be forwarded to.
3. Filtering: The switch filters out packets that are not intended for the destination device,
reducing network congestion and improving performance.
4. Forwarding: The switch forwards the packet to the destination device through the
appropriate port.

Types of Switches:

1. Unmanaged Switch: An unmanaged switch is a basic switch that does not allow for
configuration or management.
2. Managed Switch: A managed switch is a switch that can be configured and managed
through a web interface, command-line interface, or SNMP (Simple Network Management
Protocol).
 3. Layer 3 Switch: A Layer 3 switch is a switch that can perform routing functions, operating
at both Layer 2 and Layer 3 of the OSI model.
4. PoE (Power over Ethernet) Switch: A PoE switch is a switch that can provide power to
connected devices over the Ethernet cable.

Characteristics of a Switch:

1. MAC Address Table: A switch uses a MAC address table to store the MAC addresses of
connected devices.
2. VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network) Support: A switch can support VLANs, which allow
multiple virtual networks to exist on a single physical network.
3. Spanning Tree Protocol (STP): A switch can use STP to prevent network loops and
improve network reliability.
4. Quality of Service (QoS): A switch can prioritize traffic based on QoS policies, ensuring
that critical applications receive sufficient bandwidth.

Advantages of a Switch:

1. Improved Performance: Switches improve network performance by reducing network

congestion and improving data transfer rates.
2. Increased Security: Switches improve network security by filtering out unwanted traffic and
reducing the risk of network attacks.
3. Flexibility: Switches can be used to connect devices of different types and speeds.
4. Scalability: Switches can be used to build large, scalable networks.

Disadvantages of a Switch:

1. Cost: Switches are generally more expensive than hubs.

2. Complexity: Managed switches can be complex to configure and manage.
3. Single Point of Failure: A switch can be a single point of failure in a network, causing
network downtime if it fails.

When to Use a Switch:

1. Large Networks: Switches are suitable for large networks with many devices.
2. High-Speed Networks: Switches are suitable for high-speed networks that require fast
data transfer rates.
3. Secure Networks: Switches are suitable for secure networks that require advanced
security features.

When Not to Use a Switch:

1. Small Networks: Switches may not be necessary for small networks with few devices.
2. Simple Networks: Switches may not be necessary for simple networks that do not require
advanced features.

4. Router
 Connects Multiple Networks: Routes data between different networks, and provides
network address translation (NAT).

What is a Router?
A router is a network device that connects multiple networks together, allowing devices on those
networks to communicate with each other. It is a type of network gateway that operates at the
network layer (Layer 3) of the OSI model.

How does a Router work?

A router works by examining the destination IP address of incoming data packets and forwarding
them to the next hop on the path to the destination network. It uses a routing table to store
information about the networks it is connected to and the best path to reach each network.

Here's a step-by-step explanation of how a router works:

1. Routing Table: The router builds a routing table by learning about the networks it is
connected to through various means such as static routes, dynamic routing protocols, and
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) messages.
2. Packet Receipt: The router receives a data packet from a device on one of the connected
networks.
3. Destination IP Address: The router examines the destination IP address of the packet to
determine where to forward it.
4. Routing Decision: The router uses the routing table to determine the best path to reach
the destination network.
5. Packet Forwarding: The router forwards the packet to the next hop on the path to the
destination network.
6. Packet Switching: The router may perform packet switching, where it forwards the packet
to another router or a switch on the path to the destination network.

Types of Routers:

1. Wired Router: A wired router connects devices using physical cables such as Ethernet
cables.
2. Wireless Router: A wireless router connects devices using wireless communication
protocols such as Wi-Fi.
3. Core Router: A core router is a high-performance router that connects multiple networks
together at the core of a large network.
4. Edge Router: An edge router is a router that connects a network to the Internet or a WAN
(Wide Area Network).
5. Virtual Router: A virtual router is a software-based router that runs on a virtual machine or
a cloud platform.

Characteristics of a Router:

1. Routing Table: A router uses a routing table to store information about the networks it is
connected to.
2. IP Addressing: A router uses IP addresses to identify devices on the network and to route
packets between networks.
3. Network Address Translation (NAT): A router can perform NAT, which allows multiple
devices to share a single public IP address.
4. Firewall: A router can have a built-in firewall, which filters incoming and outgoing traffic
based on security rules.
5. Quality of Service (QoS): A router can prioritize traffic based on QoS policies, ensuring
that critical applications receive sufficient bandwidth.

Advantages of a Router:
 1. Scalability: Routers can connect multiple networks together, making them scalable for
large networks.
2. Flexibility: Routers can be configured to support various network protocols and
architectures.
3. Security: Routers can provide security features such as firewalls and NAT to protect the
network.
4. Performance: Routers can improve network performance by reducing network congestion
and improving data transfer rates.

Disadvantages of a Router:

1. Cost: Routers can be expensive, especially high-performance core routers.

2. Complexity: Routers can be complex to configure and manage, especially for large
networks.
3. Single Point of Failure: A router can be a single point of failure in a network, causing
network downtime if it fails.

When to Use a Router:

1. Large Networks: Routers are suitable for large networks with multiple subnets.
2. Internet Connectivity: Routers are necessary for connecting a network to the Internet.
3. WAN Connectivity: Routers are necessary for connecting a network to a WAN.

When Not to Use a Router:

1. Small Networks: Routers may not be necessary for small networks with a single subnet.
2. Simple Networks: Routers may not be necessary for simple networks that do not require
advanced features.

5. Modem
 Modulates/Demodulates Signals: Converts digital signals to analog signals for
transmission over phone lines.

What is a Modem?

A modem (Modulator-Demodulator) is a network device that enables communication between a

computer or a network and a remote network or the Internet over a telephone line, cable, or fiber
optic connection. It is a type of network interface device that operates at the physical layer (Layer
1) and data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.

How does a Modem work?

A modem works by converting digital data from a computer or network into analog signals that can
be transmitted over a telephone line, cable, or fiber optic connection. At the receiving end, the
modem converts the analog signals back into digital data that can be understood by the computer
or network.

Here's a step-by-step explanation of how a modem works:

1. Digital Data: The computer or network sends digital data to the modem.
 2. Modulation: The modem converts the digital data into analog signals using a modulation
technique such as amplitude-shift keying (ASK), frequency-shift keying (FSK), or
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).
3. Transmission: The analog signals are transmitted over the telephone line, cable, or fiber
optic connection to the remote network or Internet.
4. Demodulation: The receiving modem converts the analog signals back into digital data
using a demodulation technique.
5. Digital Data: The digital data is sent to the remote computer or network.

Types of Modems:

1. Dial-up Modem: A dial-up modem uses a telephone line to connect to the Internet.
2. Cable Modem: A cable modem uses a cable television network to connect to the Internet.
3. DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) Modem: A DSL modem uses a telephone line to connect to
the Internet, but provides faster speeds than a dial-up modem.
4. Fiber Optic Modem: A fiber optic modem uses a fiber optic connection to connect to the
Internet, providing the fastest speeds.
5. Mobile Modem: A mobile modem uses a cellular network to connect to the Internet.

Characteristics of a Modem:

1. Baud Rate: The baud rate is the rate at which the modem transmits data, measured in bits
per second (bps).
2. Data Transfer Rate: The data transfer rate is the rate at which the modem transfers data,
measured in kilobits per second (kbps) or megabits per second (Mbps).
3. Modulation Technique: The modulation technique used by the modem to convert digital
data into analog signals.
4. Error Correction: The modem uses error correction techniques such as checksums and
redundancy to ensure data integrity.
5. Authentication: The modem uses authentication protocols such as PPP (Point-to-Point
Protocol) to authenticate the user and establish a connection.

Advantages of a Modem:

1. Remote Access: A modem enables remote access to a network or the Internet.

2. Flexibility: A modem can be used with various types of networks and connections.
3. Cost-Effective: A modem is a cost-effective way to connect to the Internet or a remote
network.
4. Easy to Install: A modem is relatively easy to install and configure.

Disadvantages of a Modem:

1. Speed Limitations: A modem's data transfer rate is limited by the type of connection and
the quality of the line.
2. Interference: A modem can be affected by electromagnetic interference and noise on the
line.
3. Security Risks: A modem can be vulnerable to security risks such as hacking and
unauthorized access.

When to Use a Modem:

1. Remote Access: A modem is necessary for remote access to a network or the Internet.
2. Internet Connectivity: A modem is necessary for connecting to the Internet.
3. Dial-up Connection: A modem is necessary for dial-up connections.
When Not to Use a Modem:

1. High-Speed Connections: A modem may not be necessary for high-speed connections

such as fiber optic or cable connections.
2. Local Area Network: A modem may not be necessary for local area networks (LANs) that
do not require remote access.

Network Addressing
1. IP Addressing
 IPv4 (32-bit): Uses dotted decimal notation (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

What is IPv4?

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4) is a protocol used to route traffic on the internet. It is a
connectionless protocol, which means that it does not establish a dedicated connection with the
destination device before sending data. Instead, it uses a best-effort delivery approach, where the
data is sent in packets and the receiving device reassembles the packets into the original data.

IPv4 Addressing

IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, which are typically represented in dotted decimal notation (e.g.,
192.0.2.1). The 32-bit address is divided into four octets, each representing 8 bits. The first octet
represents the network ID, and the remaining three octets represent the host ID.

IPv4 Address Classes

IPv4 addresses are divided into five classes: A, B, C, D, and E. Each class has a specific range of
addresses and is used for different purposes.

 Class A: 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 (128 networks, 16,777,216 hosts per network)

 Class B: 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255 (16,384 networks, 65,536 hosts per network)
 Class C: 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255 (2,097,152 networks, 256 hosts per network)
 Class D: 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255 (multicast addresses)
 Class E: 240.0.0.0 to 254.255.255.255 (reserved for future use)

IPv4 Header

The IPv4 header consists of 14 fields, which are used to route packets on the internet. The fields
are:

1. Version: 4-bit field that specifies the IP version (IPv4)

2. Header Length: 4-bit field that specifies the length of the header in 32-bit words
3. Type of Service: 8-bit field that specifies the quality of service (QoS) for the packet
4. Total Length: 16-bit field that specifies the total length of the packet
5. Identification: 16-bit field that identifies the packet
6. Flags: 3-bit field that specifies whether the packet can be fragmented and whether it is the
last fragment
7. Fragment Offset: 13-bit field that specifies the offset of the fragment
8. Time to Live: 8-bit field that specifies the maximum number of hops the packet can take
9. Protocol: 8-bit field that specifies the protocol used in the data portion of the packet
10. Header Checksum: 16-bit field that contains the checksum of the header
 11. Source IP Address: 32-bit field that specifies the source IP address
12. Destination IP Address: 32-bit field that specifies the destination IP address
13. Options: variable-length field that specifies optional parameters
14. Padding: variable-length field that pads the header to a multiple of 32 bits

IPv4 Fragmentation

IPv4 packets can be fragmented into smaller packets to accommodate networks with smaller
maximum transmission unit (MTU) sizes. The fragmentation process involves dividing the packet
into smaller fragments, each with its own header, and reassembling the fragments at the
destination device.

IPv4 Limitations

IPv4 has several limitations, including:

 Address Space: The 32-bit address space is limited, which has led to the development of
IPv6.
 Security: IPv4 has limited security features, which can make it vulnerable to attacks.
 Quality of Service: IPv4 has limited QoS features, which can make it difficult to prioritize
traffic.

IPv4 vs. IPv6

IPv4 is being replaced by IPv6, which offers several advantages, including:

 Larger Address Space: IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, which provides a much larger
address space.
 Improved Security: IPv6 has built-in security features, such as IPsec, which provides end-
to-end encryption.
 Improved QoS: IPv6 has improved QoS features, which enable better traffic prioritization.

 IPv6 (128-bit): Uses hexadecimal notation (e.g.,

2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

2. MAC Addressing
 Media Access Control: Unique 48-bit address assigned to each network interface card
(NIC).

What is a MAC Address?

A MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique identifier assigned to a network interface
controller (NIC) for a computer or other network device. It is used to identify devices at the data
link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.

MAC Address Format

A MAC address is typically represented as a 12-digit hexadecimal number, separated by colons or

hyphens, in the format:

XX:XX:XX:XX:XX:XX or XX-XX-XX-XX-XX-XX

Each digit represents a 4-bit value, and the entire address is 48 bits long.
MAC Address Components

A MAC address consists of two parts:

1. Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI): The first 24 bits (6 hexadecimal digits) of the
MAC address, which identifies the manufacturer of the NIC.
2. Network Interface Controller (NIC) Specific: The remaining 24 bits (6 hexadecimal digits)
of the MAC address, which identifies the specific NIC.

MAC Address Types

There are two types of MAC addresses:

1. Unicast MAC Address: A unique MAC address assigned to a single device on a network.
2. Multicast MAC Address: A MAC address that is shared by multiple devices on a network,
used for broadcasting and multicasting.

MAC Address Assignment

MAC addresses can be assigned in several ways:

1. Static MAC Address: A MAC address is manually configured on a device.

2. Dynamic MAC Address: A MAC address is assigned by a DHCP server or other network
device.
3. Burned-in MAC Address: A MAC address is permanently stored in the NIC's firmware.

MAC Address Resolution

MAC address resolution is the process of mapping a MAC address to an IP address. This is done
using the ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) protocol.

MAC Address Filtering

MAC address filtering is a security feature that allows network administrators to control access to a
network by specifying which MAC addresses are allowed or denied access.

MAC Address Spoofing

MAC address spoofing is a security threat where an attacker changes their MAC address to
impersonate another device on the network.

MAC Address Table

A MAC address table is a database that stores the MAC addresses of devices on a network, along
with their corresponding IP addresses and other information.

MAC Address Learning

MAC address learning is the process of populating a MAC address table with the MAC addresses
of devices on a network.
MAC Address Aging

MAC address aging is the process of removing stale MAC address entries from a MAC address
table.

MAC Address Security

MAC address security involves implementing measures to prevent MAC address spoofing, such
as:

1. MAC Address Authentication: Verifying the authenticity of a MAC address.

2. MAC Address Encryption: Encrypting MAC addresses to prevent unauthorized access.

Network Communication Models

1. OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model
7 Layers:
1. Physical (Layer 1)
2. Data Link (Layer 2)
3. Network (Layer 3)
4. Transport (Layer 4)
5. Session (Layer 5)
6. Presentation (Layer 6)
7. Application (Layer 7)

Layer 7: Application Layer

The Application Layer is the topmost layer of the OSI model, and it is responsible for
providing services to end-user applications. This layer provides functions such as:

 Identifying communication partners

 Determining resource availability
 Synchronizing communication
 Providing error recovery

Protocols that operate at this layer include:

 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)

 FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
  DNS (Domain Name System)

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

The Presentation Layer is responsible for converting data into a format that can be
understood by the receiving device. This layer provides functions such as:

 Data compression
 Data encryption
 Data formatting

Protocols that operate at this layer include:

 SSL (Secure Sockets Layer)

 TLS (Transport Layer Security)
 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

Layer 5: Session Layer

The Session Layer is responsible for establishing, managing, and terminating

connections between applications. This layer provides functions such as:

 Session establishment and termination

 Session management
 Dialog control

Protocols that operate at this layer include:

 NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output System)

 SSH (Secure Shell)

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The Transport Layer is responsible for providing reliable data transfer between devices.
This layer provides functions such as:

 Segmenting and reassembling data

 Error detection and correction
 Flow control
 Multiplexing

Protocols that operate at this layer include:

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
 SCTP (Stream Control Transmission Protocol)
Layer 3: Network Layer

The Network Layer is responsible for routing data between devices on different
networks. This layer provides functions such as:

 Routing
 Addressing
 Congestion control
 Fragmentation

Protocols that operate at this layer include:

 IP (Internet Protocol)
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
 IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol)

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer is responsible for providing error-free transfer of data frames
between devices on the same network. This layer provides functions such as:

 Framing
 Error detection and correction
 Flow control
 Media access control

Protocols that operate at this layer include:

 Ethernet
 Wi-Fi
 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting raw bits over a physical medium such
as a cable or wireless link. This layer provides functions such as:

 Bit transmission
 Signal encoding
 Signal decoding
 Physical medium specification

Protocols that operate at this layer include:

 RJ-45 (Registered Jack 45)

  Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)
 Fiber optic cables

Here's a summary of the OSI model layers and their functions:

Layer Function

7. Application Provides services to end-user applications

6. Presentation Converts data into a format that can be understood by the receiving device

5. Session Establishes, manages, and terminates connections between applications

4. Transport Provides reliable data transfer between devices

3. Network Routes data between devices on different networks

2. Data Link Provides error-free transfer of data frames between devices on the same network

1. Physical Transmits raw bits over a physical medium

2. TCP/IP Model
4 Layers:
1. Network Access (Combines OSI Layers 1-3)
2. Internet (OSI Layer 3)
3. Transport (OSI Layer 4)
4. Application (OSI Layers 5-7)

Network Security
1. Threats
 Malware: Viruses, worms, trojans, and spyware.
 Unauthorized Access: Hacking, phishing, and social engineering.
Malware:

Malware is a type of malicious software that is designed to harm or exploit a computer system or
its data. There are several types of malware, including:

 Viruses: A virus is a type of malware that attaches itself to a program or file and replicates
itself, spreading to other parts of the system. Viruses can cause damage to data, slow down
system performance, and even crash the system.
 Worms: A worm is a type of malware that can travel from system to system without the
need for human interaction. Worms can exploit vulnerabilities in operating systems and
applications, and can cause damage to data and systems.
 Trojans: A Trojan is a type of malware that disguises itself as a legitimate program or file,
but actually contains malicious code. Trojans can be used to steal sensitive information,
install additional malware, or give an attacker remote access to the system.
 Spyware: Spyware is a type of malware that is designed to secretly monitor and collect
information about a user's activities without their knowledge or consent. Spyware can be
used to track browsing habits, steal sensitive information, and even take control of the
system.

Malware can spread through various means, including:

 Infected email attachments or links

 Infected software downloads
 Infected websites or web pages
 Infected USB drives or other external devices
 Vulnerabilities in operating systems or applications

Unauthorized Access:

Unauthorized access refers to the unauthorized use or access of a computer system, network, or
data. This can be achieved through various means, including:

 Hacking: Hacking involves using technical skills to gain unauthorized access to a system
or network. Hackers may use various techniques, such as password cracking, social
engineering, or exploiting vulnerabilities in systems or applications.
 Phishing: Phishing involves using social engineering tactics to trick users into revealing
sensitive information, such as passwords or credit card numbers. Phishing attacks often
involve fake emails, texts, or websites that appear legitimate.
 Social Engineering: Social engineering involves using psychological manipulation to trick
users into revealing sensitive information or performing certain actions that can compromise
security. Social engineering tactics can include pretexting, baiting, and quid pro quo.

Unauthorized access can be achieved through various means, including:

 Weak passwords or authentication mechanisms

 Unpatched vulnerabilities in systems or applications
 Misconfigured systems or networks
 Human error or negligence
 Insider threats

To protect against malware and unauthorized access, it is essential to implement robust security
measures, including:
  Installing and regularly updating antivirus software
 Implementing strong password policies and authentication mechanisms
 Keeping systems and applications up-to-date with the latest security patches
 Implementing firewalls and intrusion detection systems
 Conducting regular security audits and penetration testing
 Educating users about security best practices and the dangers of malware and
unauthorized access.

2. Security Measures
 Firewalls: Block unauthorized access to a network.
 Encryption: Protects data in transit using algorithms like SSL/TLS.
 Authentication: Verifies user identities using passwords, biometrics, or tokens.

Firewalls:

A firewall is a network security system that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network
traffic based on predetermined security rules. Firewalls act as a barrier between a trusted network
and an untrusted network, such as the internet.

Firewalls can be:

 Hardware-based: A physical device installed between the network and the internet.
 Software-based: A program installed on a computer or server to monitor and control
network traffic.

Firewalls provide several security benefits, including:

 Blocking unauthorized access: Firewalls can block incoming traffic from unknown or
suspicious sources, preventing hackers from accessing the network.
 Port blocking: Firewalls can block specific ports or services to prevent unauthorized
access to certain areas of the network.
 Network segmentation: Firewalls can segment a network into different zones, each with
its own set of access controls and security rules.
 Logging and auditing: Firewalls can log and audit network traffic, providing valuable
information for security incident response and forensic analysis.

Encryption:

Encryption is the process of converting plaintext data into unreadable ciphertext to protect it from
unauthorized access. Encryption ensures that even if data is intercepted or accessed by an
unauthorized party, it will be unreadable and unusable.

Common encryption algorithms include:

 SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security): Used to encrypt data in

transit between a client and a server, such as when accessing a website or sending emails.
 AES (Advanced Encryption Standard): A symmetric key block cipher used to encrypt
data at rest and in transit.
  RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman): An asymmetric key algorithm used for secure data
transmission and digital signatures.

Encryption provides several security benefits, including:

 Data confidentiality: Encryption ensures that data remains confidential and cannot be
read or accessed by unauthorized parties.
 Data integrity: Encryption ensures that data is not tampered with or altered during
transmission.
 Authentication: Encryption can be used to authenticate the identity of the sender and
ensure that the data comes from a trusted source.

Authentication:

Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a user, device, or system. Authentication
ensures that only authorized entities have access to a network, system, or data.

Common authentication methods include:

 Password-based authentication: Using a username and password to authenticate a user.

 Biometric authentication: Using unique physical or behavioral characteristics, such as
fingerprints, facial recognition, or voice recognition, to authenticate a user.
 Token-based authentication: Using a physical token, such as a smart card or one-time
password generator, to authenticate a user.
 Multi-factor authentication (MFA): Using a combination of two or more authentication
methods, such as a password and a fingerprint, to authenticate a user.

Authentication provides several security benefits, including:

 Access control: Authentication ensures that only authorized users have access to a
network, system, or data.
 Identity verification: Authentication verifies the identity of a user, ensuring that they are
who they claim to be.
 Accountability: Authentication provides a record of user activity, making it easier to track
and monitor user behavior.

These security measures are essential for protecting networks, systems, and data from
unauthorized access, use, disclosure, modification, or destruction. By implementing firewalls,
encryption, and authentication, organizations can reduce the risk of security breaches and protect
their sensitive assets.

TYPES OF NETWORK
1. LAN (Local Area Network)

A LAN is a computer network that spans a small geographical area, typically within a building or
campus. It connects devices such as computers, printers, and servers in a limited area. LANs are
used for sharing resources, exchanging data, and providing internet access.

Example: A company's office network that connects all the computers and devices within the
building.

2. WAN (Wide Area Network)

A WAN is a computer network that covers a larger geographical area, such as a city or country. It
connects multiple LANs together to form a larger network. WANs are used for connecting remote
offices, branches, or locations to a central headquarters or data center.

Example: A bank's network that connects all its branches across the country.

3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

A MAN is a computer network that spans a metropolitan area, such as a city or town. It connects
multiple LANs and WANs together to form a larger network. MANs are used for providing internet
access, telecommunication services, and connecting multiple organizations.

Example: A city's network that connects all its government offices, schools, and libraries.

4. WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

A WLAN is a wireless computer network that connects devices without the use of cables or wires.
It uses radio waves to transmit data between devices. WLANs are used for providing internet
access, connecting devices in a home or office, and creating hotspots.

Example: A home network that connects all the devices wirelessly.

5. WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access)

WiMAX is a wireless network technology that provides high-speed internet access over long
distances. It is used for providing broadband internet access to rural areas, connecting devices in
a metropolitan area, and creating wireless hotspots.

Example: A rural area's network that provides internet access to residents using WiMAX
technology.

6. VPN (Virtual Private Network)

A VPN is a virtual network that uses encryption and other security measures to create a secure
and private connection between devices over the internet. It is used for providing secure remote
access to a network, protecting data in transit, and bypassing internet censorship.

Example: A company's VPN that allows employees to access the company network securely from
home.

7. Intranet

An intranet is a private network that is not accessible to the general public. It is used for sharing
information, collaborating, and communicating within an organization. Intranets are typically used
by companies, governments, and educational institutions.

Example: A company's intranet that provides access to employee information, company news,
and internal resources.

8. Extranet

An extranet is a private network that is accessible to partners, suppliers, or customers of an

organization. It is used for sharing information, collaborating, and conducting business
transactions. Extranets are typically used by companies that need to share information with
external parties.
Example: A company's extranet that provides access to suppliers, partners, and customers to
share information and conduct business transactions.

Hub vs. Switch vs. Router

Feature Hub Switch Router

Layer Physical (Layer 1) Data Link (Layer 2) Network (Layer 3)

Intelligence Non-intelligent Intelligent Intelligent

Traffic Broadcasts to all Filters traffic based on MAC Routes traffic between
Management devices addresses networks

Collision
Handling Prone to collisions Reduces collisions No collisions

Scalability Limited Good Excellent

Security None Basic Advanced

Client-Server Network vs. Peer-to-Peer Network

 Feature Client-Server Network Peer-to-Peer Network

Architecture Centralized Decentralized

Resource Peers manage their own

Management Server manages resources resources

Scalability Good Excellent

Security Centralized access control Decentralized access control

Example File sharing, Print sharing, Email File sharing, BitTorrent

Clients request resources, Server provides Peers act as both clients and
Device Roles resources servers

OPERATING SYSTEM
What is an Operating System (OS)?

An Operating System (OS) is a software that manages computer hardware resources and
provides common services to computer programs. It acts as an intermediary between computer
hardware and user-level applications, controlling the allocation of system resources such as
memory, CPU time, and storage.

Functions of an Operating System:

1. Process Management: The OS manages the creation, execution, and termination of

processes (programs) running on the computer.
 2. Memory Management: The OS manages the allocation and deallocation of memory for
running programs.
3. File System Management: The OS provides a file system, which allows programs to read
and write files to storage devices such as hard drives, solid-state drives, and flash drives.
4. Input/Output (I/O) Management: The OS manages input/output operations between
devices such as keyboards, mice, printers, and monitors.
5. Security: The OS provides mechanisms for controlling access to computer resources, such
as user authentication, access control, and encryption.
6. Networking: The OS manages communication between the computer and other devices on
a network.
7. Interrupt Handling: The OS handles interrupts generated by hardware devices, such as
keyboard presses or disk completion.
8. Resource Allocation: The OS manages the allocation and deallocation of system
resources such as CPU time, memory, and I/O devices.

Types of Operating Systems:

1. Desktop Operating Systems: Designed for personal computers, examples include

Windows, macOS, and Linux.
2. Mobile Operating Systems: Designed for mobile devices such as smartphones and
tablets, examples include Android and iOS.
3. Server Operating Systems: Designed for servers, examples include Windows Server,
Linux, and Unix.
4. Real-Time Operating Systems: Designed for applications that require predictable and fast
responses, examples include embedded systems and robotics.
5. Mainframe Operating Systems: Designed for large-scale computers used in enterprise
environments, examples include z/OS and z/VM.

Key Characteristics of an Operating System:

1. Multitasking: The ability to run multiple programs simultaneously.

2. Multithreading: The ability to run multiple threads within a program.
3. Multiprocessing: The ability to use multiple CPUs or cores.
4. Virtual Memory: The ability to use disk storage as an extension of RAM.
5. Portability: The ability to run on different hardware platforms.

In summary, an Operating System is a crucial software component that enables computers to

perform tasks efficiently and securely, while providing a platform for running applications and
managing system resources.

Types of Operating Systems

Operating Systems (OS) can be classified into several categories based on their characteristics,
functionality, and application. Here are some of the main types of OS:

1. Desktop Operating Systems

Designed for personal computers, these OS are used for everyday tasks such as browsing,
emailing, and word processing.

 Examples: Windows, macOS, Linux, Chrome OS

2. Mobile Operating Systems

Designed for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets, these OS are optimized for touch
input and mobile hardware.

 Examples: Android, iOS, Windows Phone

3. Server Operating Systems

Designed for servers, these OS are used to manage and provide services over a network.

 Examples: Windows Server, Linux, Unix, z/OS

4. Real-Time Operating Systems

Designed for applications that require predictable and fast responses, these OS are used in
embedded systems, robotics, and other time-critical applications.

 Examples: VxWorks, QNX, INTEGRITY, FreeRTOS

5. Mainframe Operating Systems

Designed for large-scale computers used in enterprise environments, these OS are used for
critical business applications and data processing.

 Examples: z/OS, z/VM, z/VSE, BS2000

6. Embedded Operating Systems

Designed for specialized devices such as routers, set-top boxes, and consumer electronics, these
OS are optimized for low-power consumption and limited resources.

 Examples: Android Things, Windows Embedded, Linux Embedded, VxWorks

7. Single-User Single-Tasking Operating Systems

Designed for simple devices, these OS can only run one program at a time and are used in
applications such as calculators and cash registers.

 Examples: MS-DOS, CP/M

8. Multi-User Operating Systems

Designed for multiple users, these OS allow multiple users to access the system simultaneously
and are used in applications such as mainframes and servers.

 Examples: Unix, Linux, Windows Server

9. Multi-Tasking Operating Systems

Designed for multiple tasks, these OS allow multiple programs to run simultaneously and are used
in applications such as desktop computers and laptops.

 Examples: Windows, macOS, Linux

10. Distributed Operating Systems

Designed for distributed systems, these OS allow multiple computers to work together as a single
system and are used in applications such as clusters and grids.

 Examples: Google's Chrome OS, Microsoft's Azure

11. Open-Source Operating Systems

Designed for community-driven development, these OS are freely available and can be modified
by anyone.

 Examples: Linux, Android, FreeBSD

12. Proprietary Operating Systems

Designed for commercial use, these OS are owned and controlled by a single company and are
used in applications such as Windows and macOS.

 Examples: Windows, macOS, iOS

Types of Windows Operating Systems

Microsoft has released several versions of the Windows operating system over the years, each
with its own set of features, improvements, and target audiences. Here are some of the main types
of Windows operating systems:

1. Windows Desktop Operating Systems

Designed for personal computers, these OS are used for everyday tasks such as browsing,
emailing, and word processing.

 Examples: Windows 10, Windows 8.1, Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP

2. Windows Server Operating Systems

Designed for servers, these OS are used to manage and provide services over a network.

 Examples: Windows Server 2019, Windows Server 2016, Windows Server 2012, Windows
Server 2008

3. Windows Mobile Operating Systems

Designed for mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets, these OS are optimized for touch
input and mobile hardware.

 Examples: Windows 10 Mobile, Windows Phone 8.1, Windows Phone 8, Windows Phone 7

4. Windows Embedded Operating Systems

Designed for specialized devices such as kiosks, point-of-sale terminals, and industrial control
systems, these OS are optimized for low-power consumption and limited resources.

 Examples: Windows Embedded 8.1, Windows Embedded 8, Windows Embedded 7,

Windows Embedded CE

5. Windows IoT Operating Systems

Designed for Internet of Things (IoT) devices such as smart home devices, wearables, and
industrial sensors, these OS are optimized for low-power consumption and limited resources.

 Examples: Windows 10 IoT Enterprise, Windows 10 IoT Core, Windows Embedded 8.1
Industry

6. Windows RT Operating Systems

Designed for tablets and other mobile devices, these OS are optimized for touch input and mobile
hardware.

 Examples: Windows RT 8.1, Windows RT 8

7. Windows NT Operating Systems

Designed for business and enterprise environments, these OS are known for their stability,
security, and scalability.

 Examples: Windows NT 3.51, Windows NT 4.0, Windows 2000, Windows XP Professional

8. Windows 9x Operating Systems

Designed for home users, these OS are known for their ease of use and gaming capabilities.

 Examples: Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME

9. Windows Server Core Operating Systems

Designed for servers, these OS are optimized for minimal resource usage and are ideal for
running specific server roles.

 Examples: Windows Server 2019 Core, Windows Server 2016 Core, Windows Server 2012
Core

10. Windows Long-Term Servicing Channel (LTSC) Operating Systems

Designed for specialized devices and systems that require a long-term support cycle, these OS
are optimized for stability and security.

 Examples: Windows 10 LTSC, Windows 10 IoT Enterprise LTSC

CREATE VIRTUAL MACHINE

Step 1: Launch VMware Workstation

 Open VMware Workstation on your computer. You can find it in the Start menu (Windows)
or Applications folder (Mac).

Step 2: Click on "Create a New Virtual Machine"

 In the VMware Workstation window, click on "Create a New Virtual Machine" or press
Ctrl+N (Windows) or Command+N (Mac).

Step 3: Choose the Installation Method

  Select the installation method:
 "Typical" to create a virtual machine with default settings.
 "Custom" to customize the virtual machine settings.
 "I will install the operating system later" to create a virtual machine without an
operating system.

Step 4: Choose the Guest Operating System

 Select the guest operating system you want to install:

 Choose from the list of supported operating systems (e.g., Windows, Linux, macOS).
 Select "Other" if your operating system is not listed.

Step 5: Set the Virtual Machine Name and Location

 Enter a name for your virtual machine.

 Choose a location to save your virtual machine files.

Step 6: Set the Processor and Memory

 Set the number of processors and cores:

 Choose the number of processors and cores based on your host machine's
capabilities.
 Set the memory:
 Allocate a minimum of 2 GB of RAM, but more is recommended.

Step 7: Set the Network

 Choose a network connection:

 "Use bridged networking" to connect to the host machine's network.
 "Use NAT" to connect to the internet through the host machine.
 "Use host-only networking" to connect to the host machine only.

Step 8: Set the Disk

 Choose a disk type:

 "IDE" for a virtual IDE disk.
 "SCSI" for a virtual SCSI disk.
 Set the disk size:
 Choose a disk size based on your needs (e.g., 20 GB, 50 GB, 100 GB).
 Choose a disk file type:
 "Single file" to store the virtual disk in a single file.
 "Split into multiple files" to store the virtual disk in multiple files.

Step 9: Review and Finish

 Review your virtual machine settings.

  Click "Finish" to create the virtual machine.

Step 10: Install the Operating System

 Insert the installation media (e.g., CD, DVD, ISO file).

 Power on the virtual machine.
 Follow the installation instructions to install the operating system.

That's it! You have now created a virtual machine in VMware.

ASSIGNING IP ADDRESS

1. Click Start Menu > Control Panel > Network and Sharing Center or Network and
Internet > Network and Sharing Center.
2. Click Change adapter settings.
3. Right-click on Wi-Fi or Local Area Connection.
4. Click Properties.
5. Select Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4).
6. Click Properties.
7. Select Use the following IP address.
8. Enter the IP address, Subnet mask, Default gateway, and DNS server.
9. Click OK.

Alternatively, for Windows 10:

1. Select Start, then type settings. Select Settings > Network & internet.
2. Do one of the following:
 For a Wi-Fi network, select Wi-Fi > Manage known networks. Choose the network
for which you want to change the settings.
 For an Ethernet network, select Ethernet, then select the Ethernet network you’re
connected to.
3. Next to IP assignment, select Edit.
4. Under Edit network IP settings or Edit IP settings, select Manual.
5. To specify an IP address, in the IP address, Subnet mask, and Gateway boxes, type the
IP address settings.
6. To specify a DNS server address, in the Preferred DNS and Alternate DNS boxes, type
the addresses of the primary and secondary DNS servers.
SHORTCUT ADDRESS:ncpa.cpl

HOW TO CREATE PARTITION

Method 1: Using the Disk Management Tool

1. Press the Windows key + R to open the Run dialog box.

2. Type diskmgmt.msc and press Enter.

This will open the Disk Management tool.

3. In the Disk Management window, you'll see a list of available disks and their corresponding
partitions.
 4. Identify the disk where you want to create a new partition.
5. Right-click on the disk and select New Simple Volume.
6. Follow the wizard to create a new partition:
 Specify the size of the new partition.
 Assign a drive letter to the new partition.
 Choose a file system (e.g., NTFS, FAT32).
 Set a volume label (optional).
7. Click Finish to create the new partition.

Method 2: Using the Command Prompt

1. Press the Windows key + R to open the Run dialog box.

2. Type cmd and press Enter to open the Command Prompt.
3. Type the following command to create a new partition:
Open In EditorEditCopy code
1diskpart

This will open the DiskPart command-line tool.

4. Type the following command to select the disk where you want to create a new partition:
Open In EditorEditCopy code
1select disk <disk number>

Replace <disk number> with the number of the disk where you want to create a new partition.

5. Type the following command to create a new partition:

Open In EditorEditCopy code
1create partition primary size=<size>

Replace <size> with the size of the new partition in MB (e.g., 10240 for a 10 GB partition).

6. Type the following command to assign a drive letter to the new partition:
Open In EditorEditCopy code
1assign letter=<drive letter>

Replace <drive letter> with the drive letter you want to assign to the new partition (e.g., D).

7. Type exit to exit the DiskPart tool.

Method 3: Using the Windows Storage Tool

1. Press the Windows key + S to open the Search bar.

2. Type storage and select Storage from the results.
3. In the Storage window, click on Manage.
4. Click on Disk & volumes.
5. Identify the disk where you want to create a new partition.
6. Click on the New button.
7. Follow the wizard to create a new partition:
  Specify the size of the new partition.
 Assign a drive letter to the new partition.
 Choose a file system (e.g., NTFS, FAT32).
 Set a volume label (optional).
8. Click Create to create the new partition.

These methods will help you create a new partition or drive in Windows.

HOW TO INSTALL DNS SERVER

Method 1: Install DNS Server using Server Manager (Windows Server 2012 and later)

1. Open Server Manager.

2. Click on Add roles and features.
3. Select Role-based or feature-based installation and click Next.
4. Select the server from the server pool and click Next.
5. Select DNS Server under the Roles section and click Add Features.
6. Click Next and then Install to begin the installation.
7. Wait for the installation to complete and then click Close.

Method 2: Install DNS Server using PowerShell (Windows Server 2012 and later)

1. Open PowerShell as an administrator.

2. Run the following command to install the DNS server role:
1Install-WindowsFeature -Name DNS -IncludeManagementTools
3. Press Enter to begin the installation.
4. Wait for the installation to complete.

Method 3: Install DNS Server using Command Prompt (Windows Server 2008 and earlier)

1. Open Command Prompt as an administrator.

2. Run the following command to install the DNS server role:
1dcpromo.exe
3. Follow the prompts to complete the installation.

Configuring the DNS Server

1. Open the DNS Manager console (you can search for it in the Start menu).
2. Right-click on the DNS server and select New Zone.
3. Follow the prompts to create a new forward lookup zone.
4. Enter the zone name and click Next.
5. Select the zone type (e.g., primary zone) and click Next.
6. Enter the zone file name and click Finish.
7. Repeat the process to create a reverse lookup zone.

Adding DNS Records

1. Open the DNS Manager console.

 2. Right-click on the forward lookup zone and select New Host (A or AAAA) Record.
3. Enter the hostname and IP address and click Add Host.
4. Repeat the process to add additional DNS records (e.g., MX, NS, PTR).

Starting the DNS Server

1. Open the Services console (you can search for it in the Start menu).
2. Find the DNS Server service and right-click on it.
3. Select Start to start the DNS server.

Testing the DNS Server

1. Open a command prompt and run the following command:

1nslookup <hostname>

Replace <hostname> with a hostname that you added to the DNS server. 2. Verify that the DNS
server returns the correct IP address.

HOW TO INSTALL ADDS

Step 1: Open Server Manager

 Log in to your Windows Server machine as an administrator.

 Click on the Server Manager icon in the taskbar or search for it in the Start menu.
 Click on Server Manager to open it.

Step 2: Add Roles and Features

 In Server Manager, click on Add roles and features in the dashboard.

 Click Next to proceed.
 Select Role-based or feature-based installation and click Next.
 Select the server from the server pool and click Next.

Step 3: Select Active Directory Domain Services

 In the Select server roles page, scroll down and check the box next to Active Directory
Domain Services.
 Click Add Features to add the required features.
 Click Next to proceed.

Step 4: Select Additional Features

 In the Select features page, select the following features:

 Group Policy Management
 Remote Server Administration Tools
 Windows PowerShell
 Click Next to proceed.

Step 5: Install Active Directory Domain Services

 Click Install to begin the installation of Active Directory Domain Services.

  Wait for the installation to complete. This may take a few minutes.

Step 6: Promote the Server to a Domain Controller

 Once the installation is complete, click on the Promote this server to a domain
controller link.
 Click Next to proceed.

Step 7: Choose the Deployment Configuration

 Select Add a new forest and enter the following information:

 Root domain name: Enter the domain name for your organization (e.g.,
corp.contoso.com).
 Forest functional level: Select the desired forest functional level (e.g., Windows
Server 2016).
 Domain functional level: Select the desired domain functional level (e.g., Windows
Server 2016).
 Click Next to proceed.

Step 8: Set the Domain Controller Options

 Select the following options:

 Domain controller for a new domain: Select this option.
 Create a DNS delegation: Select this option.
 Click Next to proceed.

Step 9: Set the Database and Log Locations

 Enter the following information:

 Database location: Enter the location for the Active Directory database (e.g., D:\
NTDS).
 Log file location: Enter the location for the Active Directory log files (e.g., E:\Logs).
 SYSVOL location: Enter the location for the SYSVOL folder (e.g., D:\SYSVOL).
 Click Next to proceed.

Step 10: Review the Options

 Review the options you have selected and make any necessary changes.
 Click Next to proceed.

Step 11: Install Active Directory

 Click Install to begin the installation of Active Directory.

 Wait for the installation to complete. This may take a few minutes.

Step 12: Complete the Installation

 Once the installation is complete, click Finish to close the wizard.

  You have successfully installed Active Directory Domain Services on your Windows Server
machine.

ASSIGNING PERMISSION TO USER

Step 1: Open Active Directory Users and Computers

 Log in to your Windows Server machine as an administrator.

 Click on the Start menu and search for Active Directory Users and Computers.
 Click on Active Directory Users and Computers to open it.

Step 2: Find the User

 In the Active Directory Users and Computers console, navigate to the OU

(Organizational Unit) where the user is located.
 Find the user you want to assign permissions to and right-click on it.
 Select Properties from the context menu.

Step 3: Open the Security Tab

 In the User Properties window, click on the Security tab.

 Click on Advanced to open the Advanced Security Settings window.

Step 4: Add the User or Group

 Click on Add to add the user or group you want to assign permissions to.
 Enter the name of the user or group in the Select Users, Computers, Service Accounts,
or Groups window.
 Click OK to add the user or group.

Step 5: Select the Permissions

 In the Advanced Security Settings window, select the user or group you just added.
 Click on Edit to open the Permission Entry window.
 Select the permissions you want to assign to the user or group from the following options:
 Read: Allows the user or group to view the object.
 Write: Allows the user or group to modify the object.
 Create All Child Objects: Allows the user or group to create new objects within the
OU.
 Delete: Allows the user or group to delete the object.
 Full Control: Allows the user or group to have full control over the object.
 Click OK to apply the permissions.

Step 6: Apply the Permissions

 Click Apply to apply the permissions to the user or group.

 Click OK to close the Advanced Security Settings window.
Step 7: Verify the Permissions

 To verify that the permissions have been applied, click on the Security tab again.
 Click on Advanced to open the Advanced Security Settings window.
 Verify that the user or group has been added and the permissions have been applied
correctly.

That's it! You have successfully assigned permissions to a user in Active Directory.

CONNECTING SERVER TO CLIENT

Step 1: Ensure the Server is Configured

 Make sure the server is configured and running with the necessary services (e.g., Active
Directory, DNS, DHCP).
 Ensure the server has a static IP address and is connected to the network.

Step 2: Configure the Client

 Ensure the client machine is connected to the same network as the server.
 Make sure the client machine has a valid IP address and subnet mask.
 Configure the client machine to obtain an IP address automatically (DHCP) or set a static IP
address.

Step 3: Join the Client to the Domain

 On the client machine, go to Control Panel > System and Security > System.
 Click on Computer name, domain, and workgroup settings.
 Click on Change.
 Select Domain and enter the domain name (e.g., corp.contoso.com).
 Enter the credentials of a domain administrator (e.g., username and password).
 Click OK to join the client to the domain.

Step 4: Authenticate the Client

 The client machine will prompt you to authenticate with the domain.
 Enter the credentials of a domain user (e.g., username and password).
 Click OK to authenticate.

Step 5: Map the Network Drive

 On the client machine, open File Explorer.

 Click on This PC or Computer.
 Click on Map network drive.
 Select a drive letter (e.g., Z:) and enter the UNC path of the server share (e.g., \server\
share).
 Click Finish to map the network drive.

Step 6: Test the Connection

  Open the mapped network drive to test the connection.
 You should be able to access the shared resources on the server.

Step 7: Configure DNS (Optional)

 If you want to use DNS to resolve the server's hostname, configure the client machine to
use the DNS server on the server.
 Go to Control Panel > Network and Internet > Network and Sharing Center.
 Click on Change adapter settings.
 Right-click on the network adapter and select Properties.
 Select Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4) or Internet Protocol Version 6
(TCP/IPv6).
 Click on Properties.
 Select Use the following DNS server addresses.
 Enter the IP address of the DNS server on the server.
 Click OK to apply the changes.

That's it! You have successfully connected a server to a client.

CREATE AND ASSIGN USER TO OU(organizational unit)

Step 1: Open Active Directory Users and Computers

 Log in to your Windows Server machine as an administrator.

 Click on the Start menu and search for Active Directory Users and Computers.
 Click on Active Directory Users and Computers to open it.

Step 2: Create a New OU

 In the Active Directory Users and Computers console, right-click on the domain or a
parent OU.
 Select New > Organizational Unit from the context menu.
 Enter a name for the OU (e.g., "Sales") and click OK.

Step 3: Create a New User

 Right-click on the OU you just created.

 Select New > User from the context menu.
 Enter the user's details, such as:
 First name
 Last name
 User logon name (e.g., "jsmith")
 Password
 Confirm password
 Click Next and then Finish to create the user.

Step 4: Assign the User to the OU

 Find the user you just created in the OU.

  Right-click on the user and select Move from the context menu.
 Select the OU you created in Step 2 as the destination.
 Click OK to move the user to the OU.

Alternatively, you can also assign the user to the OU during the user creation process:

 In Step 3, click on the Container dropdown menu and select the OU you created in Step 2.
 Click Next and then Finish to create the user and assign it to the OU.

Step 5: Verify the User is in the OU

 Go back to the OU you created in Step 2.

 Find the user you created and assigned to the OU.
 Right-click on the user and select Properties from the context menu.
 Verify that the user is a member of the OU by checking the Member of tab.

That's it! You have successfully created and assigned a user to an Organizational Unit (OU) in
Active Directory.

HOW TO CREATE GROUPS

Here's a step-by-step guide on how to create groups in Active Directory:

Method 1: Create a Group using Active Directory Users and Computers

Step 1: Open Active Directory Users and Computers

 Log in to your Windows Server machine as an administrator.

 Click on the Start menu and search for Active Directory Users and Computers.
 Click on Active Directory Users and Computers to open it.

Step 2: Create a New Group

 In the Active Directory Users and Computers console, right-click on the domain or a
parent OU.
 Select New > Group from the context menu.
 Enter a name for the group (e.g., "Sales Team") and click OK.

Step 3: Configure Group Properties

 Right-click on the group you just created and select Properties from the context menu.
 Configure the group properties as needed, such as:
 Group type (e.g., Security or Distribution)
 Group scope (e.g., Domain Local, Global, or Universal)
 Description
 Email address
 Click OK to save the changes.

Method 2: Create a Group using Active Directory Administrative Center

Step 1: Open Active Directory Administrative Center

 Log in to your Windows Server machine as an administrator.

 Click on the Start menu and search for Active Directory Administrative Center.
 Click on Active Directory Administrative Center to open it.

Step 2: Create a New Group

 In the Active Directory Administrative Center console, click on the Groups tab.
 Click on New > Group in the Tasks pane.
 Enter a name for the group (e.g., "Sales Team") and click Add.

Step 3: Configure Group Properties

 In the Group window, configure the group properties as needed, such as:
 Group type (e.g., Security or Distribution)
 Group scope (e.g., Domain Local, Global, or Universal)
 Description
 Email address
 Click OK to save the changes.

Adding Members to a Group

 To add members to a group, right-click on the group and select Add to Group from the
context menu.
 Enter the names of the users or groups you want to add to the group.
 Click OK to add the members to the group.

Types of Groups

 Security Group: Used to manage access to resources and apply security settings.
 Distribution Group: Used to manage email distribution lists.
 Domain Local Group: Used to manage access to resources within a domain.
 Global Group: Used to manage access to resources across domains.
 Universal Group: Used to manage access to resources across domains and forests.

That's it! You have successfully created a group in Active Directory using either Active Directory
Users and Computers or Active Directory Administrative Center.