EC8491

COMMUNICATION THEORY
UNIT I AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Amplitude Modulation- DSBSC, DSBFC, SSB, VSB -
Modulation index, Spectra, Power relations and
Bandwidth – AM Generation – Square law and Switching
modulator, DSBSC Generation – Balanced and Ring
Modulator, SSB Generation – Filter, Phase Shift and
Third Methods, VSB Generation – Filter Method, Hilbert
Transform, Pre-envelope & complex envelope –
comparison of different AM techniques, Superheterodyne
Receiver
Introduction
Communication:
Communication is the process of conveying or transferring the
information from one point to another
Examples:
Wireless communication, optical communication, etc…
Classification of communication system
Modulation
Need for Modulation
Reduction in antenna height
Classification of Modulation
Wavelength
Radio Frequency Spectrum
Classification of Modulation
Amplitude Modulation:
Definition:
• After modulation, peak amplitude of modulated wave is expressed as
AM Envelope (Double Side Band Full Carrier)
AM frequency Spectrum & Bandwidth:
Frequency Spectrum:
Modulation Index:
Modulation Index Calculation:
From figure
AM VOLTAGE DISTRIBUTION
AM POWER DISTRIBUTION
Types of AM modulators
Low level Modulation
High level modulation
Generation of AM
Calculation of Power and Efficiency:
Switching Modulator using Diode:
Non Linear Modulators:
Diodes or Transistors or FET can be used as non linear modulator to provide modulation.
A non linear characteristics is mathematically expressed by power series.
The output ‘i’ is related with the output ‘e’ as follows 𝑖 = 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑏𝑒 2
Types:
1. Square law modulator
2. Balanced modulator

Square law modulator:

Square law modulator Using FET:
When band pass filter is tuned to the carrier frequency, it allows only
and terms and it reject all other terms.
Square law Diode Modulator:
Balanced Modulator:
Demodulation of AM
Demodulation is the process by which the modulating signal is
recovered from the modulated signal
It is the reverse process of modulation
Envelope Detection (OR) Diode Detector:
Square Law Detector:
AM Transmitters
Generation of DSB-SC-AM
Demodulation of DSB-SC Signals
Types:
1. Synchronous Detection method
2. Costas Receiver
Synchronous Detection method
Costa’s Receiver
Hilbert Transform – Pre envelope & Complex Envelope
Single Side Band Suppressed Carrier AM (SSB-SC-AM)

Generation of SSB-SC-AM:
Frequency Discrimination method
Phase Discrimination (or) Phase shift method
Modified Phase Shift method (or) Weavers method
Demodulation of SSB-SC-AM signals
Vestigial Sideband Modulation (VSB)
Generation and Detection of VSB Signal:
Filter Method:
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
 UNIT II
ANGLE MODULATION
Phase and frequency modulation-Narrow
Band and Wind band FM – Modulation index,
Spectra, Power relations and Transmission
Bandwidth - FM modulation – Direct and
Indirect methods, FM Demodulation – FM to
AM conversion, FM Discriminator- PLL as FM
Demodulator
Phase modulation
Frequency Modulation
Expression for the phase modulation and frequency modulation
Relationship between Phase and Frequency Modulation
Types of Frequency Modulation
1. Narrowband FM
2. Wideband FM
Narrowband FM (NBFM)
Wideband FM (WBFM)
Transmission Bandwidth of FM

Carson’s Rule
Generation of FM
1. Direct FM
2. Indirect FM (Armstrong method)
Direct FM:
1. FET reactance modulator
2. Varactor diode modulator
FET reactance modulator
Varactor Diode Modulator
Indirect Method (Armstrong method)

Block diagram of Armstrong method of generating a wideband FM signal

FM Demodulation
Two types of FM discriminators:
1. Slope detectors
2. Phase difference discriminators
Slope detectors
The principle of operation depends on the slope of the frequency
response characteristics or curve of a frequency selective network
(i) Single tuned discriminator circuit or simple slope detector
(ii) Stagger tuned discriminator circuit or balanced slope detector
Phase difference discriminators
(i) Foster seeley discriminator
(ii) Ratio detector
Simple slope detector (Single-tuned circuit)
Balanced Slope Detector
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Characteristics of balanced slope detector
Foster-Seeley Discriminator
Ratio Detector
PLL as FM Demodulator
 UNIT III
RANDOM PROCESS
Random variables, Central limit Theorem,
Random Process, Stationary Processes, Mean,
Correlation & Covariance functions, Power
Spectral Density, Ergodic Processes, Gaussian
Process, Transmission of a Random Process
through a LTI filter
Central Limit Theorem
Central limit theorem provides mathematical justification for using
Gaussian process for large number of individual random events
Transmission of a Random Process Through a Linear Filter
 UNIT IV
NOISE CHARACTERIZATION
Noise sources and types – Noise figure and noise
temperature – Noise in cascaded systems. Narrow
band noise – PSD of in-phase and quadrature
noise –Noise performance in AM systems – Noise
performance in FM systems – Pre-emphasis and
de-emphasis – Capture effect, threshold effect
Noise:
Predictable Noise:

Unpredictable Noise:
Sources of Noise:
External Noise:
Internal noise
Short Noise
Schottky formula
Thermal Noise
This type of noise arises due to random motion of electrons in a
conducting medium such as a resistor
This noise is also known as Resistor noise or Johnson noise
Power density spectrum of thermal noise
Noise Figure
Signal to noise ratio
The ratio between the signal to noise is known as signal to noise ratio
Noise figure
It is defined as the ratio between input signal to noise ratio and output
signal to noise ratio
Noise figure determination for cascaded stage amplifiers
Narrow Band Noise
Representation of Narrowband Noise in terms of In phase and
Quadrature components
Properties of noise components
Representation of Narrowband Noise in terms of Envelope & Phase
components
Noise in Amplitude Modulated Systems
Figure of Merit
It is defined as the ratio of output signal to noise ratio to input signal to noise
ratio of the receiver
When analyzing noise performance of communication system, the following
assumptions are made to evaluate figure of merit
(i) Channel noise is additive
(ii) Channel noise is White and Gaussian
(iii) Band pass noise at detector input
(iv) Input noise power
(a) Input signal to noise ratio
(b) Output signal to noise ratio
(c) Channel signal to noise ratio
Noise in DSBSC systems using coherent detection
Channel signal to noise ratio (SNR)c
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑆𝑁𝑅 𝑐= 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑙 𝑛𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ ---(3)
Average signal power
The average signal power is mean square value of s(t)
Noise in AM receivers using envelope detection
Noise in Angle Modulated (FM) systems
Capture Effect
When interference is weaker than desired FM input, then the
interference suppression in an FM receiver works well
When interference is stronger than desired FM, the receiver locks on to
the stronger signal and there by suppresses the desired FM input
When they are of equal strength, the receiver fluctuates back and forth
between them. This phenomenon is known as capture effect
PRE-EMPHASIS & DE-EMPHASIS IN FM
FM Threshold Effect
Threshold Effect
 UNIT V
SAMPLING & QUANTIZATION
Low pass sampling – Aliasing- Signal Reconstruction-
Quantization - Uniform & non-uniform quantization -
quantization noise - Logarithmic Companding –PAM,
PPM, PWM, PCM – TDM, FDM
Low Pass Sampling Theorem
Sampling process:
Sampling Theorem
Proof of sampling theorem:
Reconstruction of signals from samples:
Quantization

Classification of Quantization Process

Quantization Noise or Error
Companding
• Companding is the process of compressing and expanding
• It is a non uniform quantization
• With companding the higher amplitude signals are compressed prior
to the transmission and then expanded in the receiver
• Companding = Compressing + Expanding
Analog Companding
• Compression and Expansion done by specially designed diodes
Methods of Analog Companding
• Two methods
• µ - law companding
• A – law companding

• µ - law companding – US & Japan

• A – law companding – Europe – ITU - T
Digital Companding
Pulse Modulation
Pulse width modulation
PWM & PPM Waveforms
Pulse position modulation
Pulse amplitude modulation
• In PAM, the amplitude of the pulse carrier is varied in proportion
with the amplitude of the continuous modulating signal at the
sampling instant.
Natural PAM
Generation of Natural PAM
Detection of Natural PAM
Flat Top PAM
Generation of Flat Top PAM
• Detection of Flat Top PAM
Time division multiplexing
Frequency division multiplexing
Pulse code modulation