BASICS OF COMMUNICATION

◆What is communication

Communication is a much-hyped word in today’s world. It is derived from the

Latin noun ‘communis’ and the Latin verb ‘communicare’ which mean ‘to make
common’ or ‘to share.’ It is the mechanism which sustains human relations.
Communication is the transfer of ideas, emotions, plans, messages, information,
knowledge and skills from one person to another or within a group of people by
using symbols, words, pictures, figures, graphs or illustrations. Meetings, lectures
or conferences are referred to a ‘communication event.’ Newspapers, radio,
television, and the computer are ‘communication media,’ while journalists,
newsreaders, even camera crew are ‘communication professionals.’ Dreaming,
talking, arguing in a discussion, speaking in public, reading a newspaper,
watching the television are all different kinds of communication that take place in
our everyday life.

◆The Communication Process

Communication is a cyclic process that starts when the sender feels that there is
a need to communicate with the receiver for a particular purpose. The sender
creates a message either in the verbal or non-verbal form. The message is sent
to the receiver with the help of channels of communication. The receiver accepts
the message and gives the sender a feedback. The sender gets the feedback
and determines whether the receiver has received the same message and got
the meaning that he had intended to communicate. If the sender feels that the
receiver has not received the same message and meaning, he/she again initiates
the cycle of communication. The receiver need not be present or be aware of the
sender’s intention to communicate at the time of communication. Thus
communication can occur across vast distances in time and space. The
communicating people should share an area of communicative commonality if

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the message is to be understood. The communicative process is complete once
the receiver has understood the message of the sender.

Sender > Message > Channel Medium (face-to-face, mobile, letter) > Receiver
> Feedback

​How are you? (Message) I am fine, all is well​ ​(Feedback)

◆Elements of Communication

There are seven elements of communication

1 Sender / Communicator / Encoder --- is the person who initiates then

process of communication and creates the message to be sent. Whenever the
sender feels that there is a need to communicate some information to the
other person (receiver), he/she starts the process of communication. The
sender must be aware of the purpose of communication and the receiver’s
ability to understand the message in terms of language, interest etc. The
sender can be a politician giving a speech or a parent talking to his child.

​ essage --- is what communication actually produces for transmission. It is

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created by the sender to convey information, facts or opinion to the receiver;
the message is designed to meet the needs of the receiver. For example, if
the message is between two friends, the message will take a different form
than if a person is communicating with a superior. The message should be
clear and simple so that the receiver can understand it in the same way as the
sender desires. While drafting it, the sender should take care of the words, the
language and the meaning if the message is to be communicated in verbal /
written form. He / she should take care of body language and facial
expression if the message is to be communicated in non-verbal form.

3 ​ ncoding --- is how the message is transmitted to another person. The

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message is converted into a suitable form for transmission. The medium of
transmission will determine the form of the communication. For example, the
form of the message in spoken communication is different from that in written
communication.

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4 ​ hannels of communication --- can be written, spoken, mass media like
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radio, television, newspapers, books, mobile phone, e-mail, voice mail,
internet, blogs etc. The channel is the medium through which the message is
communicated to the receiver. The channel plays a vital role in the process of
communication. The channel must be able to transmit the message from
person to another without changing the content of the message.

5 ​ eceiver --- is the person who receives the message. The receiver may be a
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single person or a group of persons. The receiver understands the meaning of
the message and sends the feedback to the sender. The receiver should have
the same language ability, cultural background and level of comprehension as
the sender. Otherwise, it may lead to a wrong interpretation of the message
by the receiver.

6 ​ ecoding --- occurs when the receiver attempts to ascertain the meaning of
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the sender’s message.

7 ​ eedback ​--- is the final step in the process of communication and is also the
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most crucial element of communication. The receiver drafts a suitable reply
and sends it to the sender. The feedback is important for the sender in order
to confirm whether the receiver has received the message and interpreted its
meaningin the desired way. The process of communication cannot be
complete without the feedback.

◆Communication Noise

The occasional obstacle in the communication process is called noise. Noise is

an unplanned interference that hinders the transmission of the message.
There are different types of noise :--

​ nvironmental Noise --- is noise that physically disrupts communication. For

(a) E
example, the noise from a construction site next to a classroom makes it
difficult for the students to hear what the teacher says; or standing close to
loudspeakers at a party prevents people from interacting with each other.

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 ​ hysiological / Impairment Noise --- refers to maladies such as deafness or
(b) P
blindness that prevent effective communication and stand in the way of
understanding the meaning of the message.

​ yntactical Noise --- refers to the grammatical mistakes in a sentence that

(c) S
hinder proper communication. For example, sentences like ‘the girl don’t know
English,’ ‘he was returned back from the US last month.’

​ emantic Noise --- refers to different interpretations of the meaning of words.

(d) S
For example, the word ‘bark’ can be interpreted either as a short loud sound
made by dogs or as having the wrong idea about something (barking up the
wrong tree)

​ sychological Noise --- refers to attitudes / state of mind / disorders that

(e) P
make communication difficult. For example, anger or grief and disorders like
Autism can severely hamper effective communication.

​ rganizational Noise --- is the unclear, poorly drafted communication that

(f) O
does not help the receiver to comprehend the message; example, vague and
badly stated directions.

◆Importance of Communication

Communication is important both for an individual and for society. A person’s

need for communication is as strong and as basic as the biological needs like
eating and sleeping. Communication facilitates the process of sharing information
and knowledge. It is the foundation of all human relationships. It helps people to
express their thoughts and feelings and to understand those of
others.Communication is essential to the existence of society and is also a tool
for sharing our experiences through ‘symbol mediated interaction.’ Without
communication humanity will be drowned in the abyss of ignorance and
loneliness. Isolation is the severest punishment for a human being.
Communication is the basic need of grown-ups, children and elderly people and
is a fundamental right. Communication thus involves active interaction with our
environment physically, socially and biologically.

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◆​The Seven C’s of Effective Communication

Communication is an inextricable part of our daily routine. We sit in class and

listen to teachers. We read books and magazines. We talk to friends, watch
television and communicate over the telephone / mobile phone and also over the
internet. The major part of our time is spent in some kind of communication.
There are seven C’s of effective communication which are applicable to written
as well as oral communication.

1 ​Completeness : The communication must be complete. It must convey all the

facts required by the receiver / audience. The sender of the message must
take into consideration the receiver’s mind set and convey the message
accordingly. A complete communication has several distinct features. It
develops and enhances understanding. It ensures that no crucial information
is missing. A complete communication always gives additional information
wherever necessary. It leaves no doubts in the mind of the receiver. It helps in
better decision-making by the receivers / readers / audience as they get all
the desired and essential information. A complete communication persuades
the audience too.

2 ​Conciseness --- means communicating what the sender wants to convey in a

few words without forgoing the other C’s of communication. Conciseness is
essential for effective communication. A concise communication is
time-saving; it avoids unnecessary and excessive words and highlights the
main message that is it gives a short and essential message to the receiver /
reader / audience. It is more appealing and comprehensible.

3 ​Consideration --- implies stepping into the shoes of others that is taking into
consideration the receiver’s view points, background, mindset, level of
education etc. Considerate communication ensures that the self-respect of the
receiver is maintained and that his emotions are unharmed. It empathizes with
the receiver, shows interest in him and thus stimulates a positive reaction
from him. It is optimistic and lays stress on positive words such as jovial,
thanks, warm, healthy etc.

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4 ​Clarity​--- implies emphasizing a specific message at a time rather than trying
to achieve too much at once. A clear message can be easily understood
because it uses exact, appropriate and concrete words. Clarity of thought and
ideas helps in better understanding the message.

5 ​Concreteness --- means being particular and clear which boosts confidence.
A concrete message is supported by specific facts and figures; it uses words
that are lucid and so it is not misinterpreted.

​ ourtesy​--- implies that the message should reveal that the sender is well
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mannered and that he respects the receiver. The sender of the message
must be sincerely polite, judicious, reflective and enthusiastic. A courteous
message values the views as well as the feelings of the receiver. It is positive,
unbiased and focuses on the receiver.

7 ​Correctness --- means that there should not be any grammatical errors in the
communication. A correct message is exact, precise and well-timed. It makes
use of appropriate and correct language and also checks the precision and
accuracy of the facts and figures used in the message. A correct message
boosts the receiver’s morale.

These seven C’s are the essence of effective communication and an awareness
of them will no doubt make a person an effective communicator.

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◆Models of Communication

1.Aristotle’s Model

Over 2300 years ago, Aristotle, the famous Greek philosopher, laid the
groundwork for modern public communication. He proposed a speaker-centred
model of communication called the rhetoric model. It is applicable to the art of
public speaking. In this model, the speaker is the centre of communication
process. The message of the speaker is aimed at a large audience. The
message is intended to influence the audience and persuade them to his way of
thinking. According to Aristotle, good rhetoric is not only persuasive but also
ethical. In his view, a public presentation is a balance of three elements :-- ethos
(the ethical), pathos (the emotional) and logos (the logical). The ethos is the
speaker and his character as revealed through the communication. The pathos is
the audience and the emotions felt by them during the rhetoric. The logos is the
actual words used by the speaker. Aristotle’s pathos was a novel idea in his time
though it is not so today. Aristotle is the earliest rhetorician to identify the
audience and their perception as an important part of public speaking. He
believed that a speech was effective only if it stirred the emotions of the
audience.

Ethos – is the Greek word for ‘character.’ It refers to the trustworthiness or

credibility of the speaker or writer. Ethos is often conveyed through the tone
and style of the message and through the way the speaker or writer refers to
differing views. The speaker’s / writer’s reputation, his / her expertise in the
field, and his / her previous record or integrity also affect ethos. The impact of
ethos is called the argument’s ‘ethical appeal.’ We tend to be persuaded by
people whom we respect and who, we think, have warmth, consideration for
others, a good mind and solid learning.

Pathos ​– is the Greek word for ‘suffering’ or ‘experience.’ It is associated with

emotional appeal or the appeal to the sympathy and imagination of the
audience. Pathos makes an audience respond emotionally and also identify
with the speaker’s point of view. The most common way of conveying pathos
is through narrative or story which can turn the abstractions of logic into
something palpable. The values and beliefs of the writer are implicit in the

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 story and conveyed imaginatively to the reader. Pathos thus refers to the
emotional and imaginative impact of the message on the audience.

Logos --- is the Greek for ‘word.’ It refers to the internal consistency of the
message – the clarity of the claim, the logic of its reasons and the
effectiveness of its supporting evidence. The impact of logos on an audience
is often called the argument’s logical appeal.

2.The Shannon-Weaver Model of Communication

Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver were engineers working for Bell
Telephone Company in the United States. They designed the most influential of
all early communication models. Their goal was to formulate a theory to find the
most efficient way of transmitting electrical signals from one location to another
and ensure the maximum efficiency of telephone cables and radio waves.
Shannon and Weaver’s work developed during World War II; their main goal was
to work out a way in which the channels of communication could be used most
effectively Their work was an invaluable help to communication engineers in
dealing with the capacity of various communication channels in ‘bits per second.’
It contributed to computer science. It made ‘information’ ‘measureable’ and gave
rise to the mathematical study of ‘information theory.’

The Shannon-Weaver model of communication is called ‘’the mother of all

models.’’ It embodies the concepts of information source, message, transmitter,
signals, channel, noise, receiver, information destination, encoding and
decoding. It is referred to as transmission model of communication. Many
everyday forms of communication appear to be less immediate methods of
communication than face-to-face interaction; example using the radio,
newspapers or the telephone. In these cases, technology is introduced. For
instance, when the telephone is used, we speak; the phone turns the sound
waves into electrical impulses and they are turned back into sound waves by the
phone at the other end of the line.

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The Shannon-Weaver model suggests that all communication includes six
elements --

(a) a ​source :-- all human communication has some source (information
source), a person or group of persons with a given purpose and a reason for
communication. The terms transmitter and communicator also refer to source;

(b) an ​encoder​:-- when we communicate with people, we have a particular

purpose in mind – we want to show that we are friendly, or we want to give them
some information or we want to get them to do something or to persuade them to
our point of view. We express our purpose in the form of a message which is
formulated in some kind of a code by the communication encoder. For instance,
when a person talks on the telephone (the transmitter) he/she is the source of
the message. The telephone is the encoder which turns his/her sounds into
electrical impulses. In person-to-person communication, the encoding process is
done by the source-vocal mechanism – the lip and tongue movements, the vocal
cords, the lungs face muscles etc;

(c) a ​message​:-- whatever is communicated is the message; it is what

communication is all about. The Shannon-Weaver model separates the message
from the other components of the communication process. It portrays the
message as a relatively uncomplicated matter. Meanings are not Shannon’s
concern. Meanings are assumed to be within the signs used in the message and
the receiver can take them out again. Aspects like the social context in which the
message is transmitted, the assumptions made by source and receiver and their
past experiences are simply disregarded;

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(d) ​channel :-- is the medium through which the message is transmitted from
one person to another. The channel connects the source with the receiver; .

(e) a ​decoder​ :-- retranslates the message sent;

(f) a ​receiver :-- the person at the other end of the communication channel, who
has the equipment (eg a telephone) to receive the message.

Shannon was primarily concerned with physical noise, that is any interference
with the message traversing the channel or random error in the transmission of
information; eg a motorbike roaring down the road when we are talking; mist on
the inside of the windscreen of a car; smudges on a printed page or a person
standing in front of the TV when we are watching it. Then the signal received will
be different from that sent due to noise.
The advantages of Shannon-Weaver model are its simplicity and generality.
These advantages made the model attractive to several academic disciplines
such as education, psychology, engineering and mathematics. It also drew
serious academic attention to human communication and ‘information theory’
leading to further research.
All the same this transmission model of communication has its weaknesses too.
It is not analogous to much of human communication. Only a fraction of the
information conveyed in interpersonal encounters can be taken as corresponding
to the teletype action of transmitted signals. The model is formal and does not
account for content. Shannon and Weaver were concerned only with technical
problems relating to the selection and arrangement of information. For them only
form matters and not content; hence their model does not apply to semantic
dimensions of language. This model has no mechanism to distinguish important
ideas from pure nonsense. For example to Shannon all the following come under
information – E=m2; birds fly; I think, therefore I am; don’t make noise; colourless
green ideas speak furiously. The Shannon-Weaver model is static and linear.
The source is looked upon as the active decision-maker who determines the
meaning of the message; the receiver has only the passive secondary role of
absorbing information. Communication is not seen as a simultaneous process of
sending and receiving. The transmission model is an instrumental model that
treats communication as a means to a predetermined end. It assumes that all

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communication is intentional; in reality people unintentionally communicate a
great deal about their attitudes through body language. It does not importance to
context – situational, social, political, cultural, historical and institutional. Meaning
cannot be independent of such contexts. The model also ignores the fact that
communication is a shared social system and so it treats the participants as
isolated individuals.

3.Theodore Newcomb’s Model

Theodore Newcomb formulated a triangular model of communication based on
Fritz Heider’s balance theory. Newcomb’s article, ‘’An Approach to the Study of
Communicative Act’’ published in the Psychological Review in1953, is the
original source of co-orientation theory. In it he stated that communication, in its
essence, establishes a common orientation of two or more individuals with
respect to each other and simultaneously links them to a shared object of
concern.
Newcomb developed the co orientation model as a helpful tool in relational
analysis of dyadic pairs. This simple model consists of two communicators, A
and B and their orientation towards some ‘’object of communication,’’ X, which is
part of their social environment. The object of communication could be an actual
physical object ( a house or a painting ), an event (a birthday or a wedding ), an
activity (playing cricket, watching television ) or a belief. Each communicator, A
and B, has a simultaneous co-orientation towards his/ her communication
partner (usually the level of attraction and feelings towards the partner) and
towards the object of communication (the degree of positive or negative attitude
about X).
Newcomb’s ABX model gives due priority to the communicator, the recipient as
well as the communication. ABX is a system in which internal relations are
interdependent: if A changes, B and X will change as well; or if A changes his /
her relationship with X, B will have to change his / her relationship either with X
or with A. For example if A and B are friends and X is something or someone
known to both to them, A and B will be under pressure to communicate until they
arrive at broadly similar attitudes to X. This model can be said to suggest the
interaction between sender and receiver for any common goal or cause.

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Newcomb envisaged four basic components in his model :
(1) A’s attitude towards X; (2) A’s attraction to B;
(3) B’s attitude towards X and. (4) B’s attraction to A.

According to this model, both A and B have a natural tendency to strike a

balance in their co-orientation towards X. X can be taken as the topic of
smoking; if A has a negative attitude towards smoking (X), and a very positive
attraction towards B, and B has a positive attitude A and towards smoking (X),
then A will experience an imbalance. This will result in the inclination towards a
revision of attitudes in order to effect a balance by either A decreasing his liking
for B, or A changing his attitude towards X, or A changing B’s attitude to X to
align with A’s. A’s actions are dependent on A’s own orientations as well as A’s
perceptions of B’s orientation sand vice versa. A and B are able to understand
each other’s thoughts and feelings. This model makes it clear that an index of a
dyadic relationship comprises two things;

(a) each person’s attitude towards the object of communication and attraction to
the communication partner and ;
(b) what each person perceives his/ her partner’s orientation to be.

Newcomb’s ABX model is based on the psychological view of communication.

He saw communication as a way in which people orient to their environment and
to each other, on the basis of the concept of balance between one’s attitudes
and beliefs and those that are important to another individual. If the balance is
disturbed, communication is used to restore it. Newcomb’s model was the first
model to introduce the role of communication in society or a social relationship to
maintain equilibrium within the social system.
Berlo’s S-M-C-R, 1960 – Sender – Message – Channel – Receiver is an
adaptation of the Shannon-Weaver model.

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4. McLeod and Chaffee Model
This model a variant of the Newcomb model developed by Jack M. McLeod and
Stuart H. Chaffee. Its key features are a focus on interpersonal communication /
communication between groups, an emphasis on the simultaneous inclusion of
the three main elements of information sources, communicators and receivers
and an interest in the dynamics of communication situations. The basic features
of the approach are illustrated in the form of a kite which shows the relationship
between the elements mentioned in a social setting -
(a) Elite – refers to a one-sided political interest;
(b) Issues – are any matter of current public debate about which there will be
items of information;
(c) The Public – is the relevant community affected and also the audience for the
media and ;
(d) The Media – includes print media, electronic media etc.

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◆Levels of Communication
Human communication takes place at various levels :-- (a) ​extra personal (b)
intrapersonal​ (c) ​interpersonal ​and (d) ​organizational

(a)​Extra personal communication

It efers to the communication between humanbeing and non-human entities. For
example when our pet dog wags its tail when it sees us, it is extra personal
communication.

(b)​ Intrapersonal communication

it involves communicating with the self. Intrapersonal communication does not
come under the purview of communication studies but under that of psychology
as it does not involve two or more people. It is a conversation that one has in his
mind with himself.Without such internal dialogues an individual cannot proceed
to the interpersonal and organizational levels. In fact, while a person
communicates with another person or persons, internal dialogue --- planning,
weighing and processing information --- continues concurrently.

(c)​ Interpersonal communication

It is that which happens between individuals or a group of individuals. It is direct,
written or oral communication between one person and another, one group and
another, one person and one group or one group and one person. Interpersonal
communication can be :--

(1) Dyadic communication. ​It involves two people and is the most
common type of communication; eg conversation between two friends,
between mother and child, between teacher and student etc.

(2) ​Small group communication refers to a situation when each member

actively communicates with the other group members. Small groups often
possess the following characteristics ;--- (a) group members can form
coalitions to defend positions and other members of the group (b) small
groups do not pose the threat of de-individuation (c) opinions of all group
members are heard; eg groups of friends, small circles of colleagues.

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 (3) ​Public communication​occurs when a group becomes too large for all
members to contribute. Public communication is characterized by unequal
amount of speaking by one or two individuals and limited verbal feedback
from listeners; eg classroom lectures, political speeches, church sermons
etc.

(4) ​Mass communication – is any type of communication mediated by

mass media such as newspapers, radio, television, films etc. Mass
communication differs from other forms of communication in the following
ways :--
(1) messages are aimed at and carefully tailored to specific demographic
audiences;
(2) there is no direct contact between sender and receiver;
(3) the sender has total control over the message sent;
(4) the sender has no way of clarifying miscommunications immediately;
(5) mass communication is generally sponsored by large organizations.

Interpersonal communication can be formal or informal. For example a student’s

interaction with his classmate is different from his interaction with his teacher.

(d) ​Organizational communication​ –

communication in an organization takes place at different hierarchical levels. It
is essential for the sustenance of an organization. Organizational
communication can be further divided into :-- (a) internal-operational which refers
to communication that takes place within an organization; (b)
external-operational which refers to the work related communication that an
organization makes with people outside the organization; (c) personal
communication that occurs without any business purpose.

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◆Channels of Communication

A communication channel is a medium through which a message is transmitted

to its intended audience; that is, a channel is a physical transmission medium
such as a wire or a logical connection over a multiple medium such as a radio
channel. It is used to convey an information signal from one or several senders
(transmitters) to one or several receivers. A channel has a certain capacity for
transmitting information. It is often measured by band width in H2 or data rate in
bits per second. Examples of communications based on different channels are
given below :--

Print Media Electronic Media

● Bulletins ● E-Mail Messages

● Brothers ● Video Messages
● Letters ● Instant Messages
● Newspaper ● Television Broadcasts
● Press Releases ● Radio Broadcasts
● Articles ● Tele - Conferences
● Books ● Telephone Conversations
● Hand books ● Wi-Fi or Internet Network
● Advertisement in papers ● Blogs and Websites
● Magazines ● Social Networking sites like
● Company Manuals Facebook, Twitter etc

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◆Types of Communication

Communication is essential for the internal functioning of any organization. The

interaction between the different individuals working in an organization or
company takes place through both formal and informal channels.

●Formal Communication :- ​It flows through official channels and refers to the
formal methods of communication that are followed in a management. It goes
through a hierarchy and is associated with the particular positions of the
communicator and the recipient in the organization. Internal-operational and
external-operational communication can be considered formal. Policy or
procedural changes, orders, instructions, confidential reports, promotion letters
etc come under formal communication. Written communications like company
manuals, handbooks, magazines, bulletins and reports that are designed to meet
the specific needs of the organization are also formal communications.
●Informal Communication :- ​It occurs within informal groups and is a
word-of-mouth communication (in which information is passed through people)
known as ‘grapevine’. Informal communication includes tea time gossip, casual
gatherings, lunch time meetings etc. It is based on the informal relationships that
are built up in an organization and may be conveyed by a nod, a glance, a
gesture, a smile and even silence.
Formal communication is generally more articulate (clearly
expressed), direct and has got official backing. On the other hand, informal
communication is more indirect, less explicit and is spontaneous and flexible. It
serves the social needs of the individuals in the organization and acts as a safety
valve for pent-up emotions. Nevertheless, it can also contain distorted
information and may even degenerate into negative outlets of expression like
rumour. In an organization information flows through formal and informal
channels of communication.

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***Formal Channels of Communication
Formal communication channels are the official pathways to send information
inside and outside the organization. E-mails, newsletters, memos, circulars,
notices etc are formal channels of communication. On the basis of the direction
of the flow, formal communication can be classified into four types :-

(a) ​Downward communication​ ​:- ​refers to communication from the higher level
in the hierarchy to the lower levels. Its main function is to provide direction and
control. A communication from the general manager of a company to the branch
managers and that from the Principal of a college to the heads of departments
are examples of downward communication. Annual confidential reports, official
instructions, notices, memos, telephone conversations, voice mails, e-mails,
face-to-face conversations are forms of downward communication. Downward
communication is essential for the functioning of an organization as it transfers
information, instruction, advice and ideas to subordinate staff.

(b) ​Upward communication​ :​ -​ refers to communication from subordinates to

superiors. Upward communication provides feedback on several areas of
organizational functioning. A business report from the branch manager of a
company to the Managing Director and a report from the head of a department to
the Principal are examples of upward communication. Upward communication
promotes better working relationships within an organization by giving the
subordinate staff opportunities to share their views and ideas with their
superiors.

(c) ​Lateral / Horizontal communication​ ​:- ​ takes place among peer groups
(people of equal position and grade ;eg the HOD of English and the HOD of
Politics ) or hierarchically equivalent people / people working on the same level
of hierarchy. Horizontal communication develops team work and promotes group
co- ordination within an organization / institution. It is necessary to facilitate
co-ordination, save time and bridge the communication gap among various
departments. Horizontal communication is carried out through informal
discussions, telephone calls, tele-conferencing, video conferencing, routine
meetings etc.

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(d) ​Diagonal / Cross-wise communication​ ​:-​ flows in all directions and cuts

across functions and levels in an organization / institution; example a sales

manager who communicates directly with the Vice-President who is in a different
division as well as at a higher level in the organization or an Assistant Professor
who communicates directly with the Vice Chancellor of the University. Diagonal
communication is the product of modern changes in information technology and
management. It is basically a response to market needs that demand speed and
efficiency. The increase use of e-mail encourages diagonal communication.

Downward Upward Horizontal Diagonal

Communication Communication Communication Communication

from the from employees among workers flows in all
decision makers to management at the same directions
to workers. level
Seniors to subordinate Seniors to No protocol
subordinate employees to seniors
employees seniors Employees to
employees

***Informal Channels of Communication

They are the unofficial networks used to supplement the formal channels and
usually rise out of the necessity of work.

(a) ​Networks created by leaders :- ​Leaders make extensive use of informal

networks to attain goals. Personal networking engages people from outside the
organization in a person’s effort to advance. Strategic networking focuses on
attaining goals directly.

(b) ​Chance encounters :- unscheduled and informal contact between

managers and employees can be an efficient and effective in formal channel of
communication.

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(c) ​The Grapevine ​:- It is another means by which information is transmitted in
an organization. Rumour and gossip are the two major components of grapevine.
Information travels rapidly over the grapevine and 75% of its information is true.

●Verbal / Non-verbal Communication

Communication can mainly be categorized into verbal communication and

non-verbal communication.

**Verbal Communication – refers to the use of language to communicate.

There are two main types of verbal communication possible. They are
intrapersonal communication and interpersonal communication.

**Non-verbal Communication – is the process of sending and receiving

wordless messages. Non-verbal communication supplements verbal
communication. Its purpose is to express the feelings behind a message.

The several categories of non-verbal communication are :--

(​ 1) Kinesics – is the study of how we use body movement and facial

expressions. The following come under Kinesics ---

(a) hand and body gestures that add to what the person wants to express.
Gesturing is a natural part of speech and thinking and off loads some of the
mental effort of verbal communication. For example the palms spread outwards
indicate perplexity. Interlocking and rubbing palms together indicate tension. A
locked arm posture indicates defiance.

(b) facial expressions and movement that show joy, disapproval, anger etc ; eg
frown --- disapproval; clenched teeth and moving jaw – suppression of anger;
raised eyebrow – surprise / sarcasm; lopsided smile – disbelief / sarcasm.

(c) posture that can reveal attitude; eg sitting on the edge of a chair in an
interview indicates tension, drooping shoulders indicate depression and raised
chin and stiff shoulders are signs of defiance.

(2) Proxemics – is the study of the use of space in our interaction with people. It
means body placement in relation to someone we are interacting with; eg
stepping back when someone tries to communicate with you means you are wary

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of that person; stepping closer indicates friendliness; turning away when you
are spoken to shows indifference.

(3) Haptics – refers to touch. Touch is the most common type of non-verbal
communication. We use touch to share feelings and relational meanings; eg
handshakes, hugs, holding hands.

(4) Chronemics – refers to the use of time in communication. For example if

someone asks you a personal question and you think for a while before
answering, your answer will be trusted less than if you answer quickly.

(5) Para language – is the term used to describe vocal qualities such as pitch,
volume, rhythm, intonation and rate of speech. This type of non-verbal
communication is vocal and enhances verbal communication by giving it a
special nuance. The acoustic properties of speech mentioned above can give
non-verbal cues. Sarcasm is an example of this. The linguist George L. Trager
developed a classification system which consists of voice set, voice quality and
vocalization. Voice set refers to the context in which the speaker is speaking.
This can include gender, mood, age, culture etc. Voice quality includes volume,
pitch, tempo, rhythm, resonance, nasality, accent etc. Vocalization consists of
characterizers, qualifiers and segregates. Characterizers are emotions
expressed while speaking such as laughing, yawning, crying etc. Qualifiers refer
to the style of delivering a message; eg shouting, whispering. Vocal segregates
such as ‘uh-huh’ tell the speaker that the listener is actually listening.

(6) Silence – serves as a type of non-verbal communication. Silence is powerful

because the person using silence may be refusing to engage in communication
with you. Moreover, silence can be used to regulate the flow of our conversation.
Silence has a variety of meanings depending on the context.

***Differences between verbal and non-verbal communication

(1) When we communicate verbally we use a single channel (words). But in

non-verbal communication we use multiple channels such as gestures, facial
expressions, pitch of the voice and body language. As verbal language is
arbitrary and ambiguous, it is not very easy to decode. When verbal

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communication is accompanied by non-verbal communication decoding becomes
easy.

(2) Verbal communication is linear that is, messages have a beginning and an
end. But non-verbal communication is continuous that is, we can get non-verbal
cues even after the verbal message has ended.

(3) Verbal communication is conscious that is, we think and formulate the words
in our mind before we communicate. Non-verbal communication is unconscious
and spontaneous. Our emotions and responses are naturally displayed in our
facial expressions and body language.

(4) Verbal communication is language specific that is, the receiver can
understand the sender’s message only if he knows the linguistic codes the
sender uses. For example an English language communication won’t be
understood by a person who knows only the linguistic codes of Malayalam.
Non-verbal communication is of a universal nature as smiles, frowns, body
language etc mean the same thing the world over.

***Functions of non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication is used to duplicate verbal communication; eg head

nod duplicating yes / no; expanding arms indicating something large. It replaces
verbal communication; eg answering yes/no question with just a head nod/head
shake. It complements verbal communication ; eg if a friend informs you that
he/she has come first in a competition, you not only verbally congratulate him/her
but also shake his/her hand or pat him/her on the back. Non-verbal
communication accents or strengthens verbal communication; eg we can raise
the volume of our voice on certain words to accent communication – I am VERY
angry with you and expresses emotions; eg smile – joy, tears – sorrow, frown –
anger/irritation. It regulates verbal communication; eg if we want to talk to a
person, we might make eye contact, move closer, face the person directly etc.
During communication we can use vocal segregates like ‘um’, ‘uh-huh’ to keep
the communication flowing from the sender. It contradicts verbal communication;
e.g. to your question ‘how are you’, your friend might say ‘I am fine’ but from the
facial expression you know that all is not well. Non-verbal communication

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indicates relational standing; e.g. romantic partners stand close to one another
and touch frequently but mere acquaintances maintain a certain distance. It
demonstrates and maintains cultural norms; eg shaking hands, hugging, greeting
with hands folded reveal the respective cultures of nations

●Circumstantial Speech

It is a communication disorder in which the focus of a conversation drifts. In

circumstantiality, unnecessary details and irrelevant remarks cause a delay in
getting to the point. But in circumstantial speech, the speaker ultimately does
come back to the point as opposed to tangential speech in which the speaker
never returns to the point after the drift. A person afflicted by circumstantiality has
slowed thinking and it is often difficult to elicit information from such persons
because of circumstantiality.

●Sender-centric communication

It is that which prioritizes the sender. The sender has an idea and wants to
communicate it to one or more persons. The aim of the sender is to convince or
persuade the listeners to accept his views. There is neither room norm scope for
response from the listeners. The rhetoric model of communication popularized by
Aristotle is a perfect example of sender-centric communication. Any ‘telling’ can
be considered as sender-centric communication; e.g. church sermons, religious
discourses and political speeches.

●Receiver-centric communication

It is participatory communication. Though theoretically or conceptually, all

communication is receiver-centric as it presupposes a receiver, not all
communication allows for the active participation of the receiver. Every
interactive communication can be said to be receiver-centric; eg chats,
discussions, debates etc. In the modern definition receiver-centric
communication allows enough space for the receiver to choose what he wants to
hear/see/read. For example, www offers plenty of information sites to a person
who browses the internet; but the one who browses chooses what he wants to

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read. The remote control is one device that has given great impetus to
receiver-centric communication.

●Oral Communication

It refers to spoken verbal communication.It has two forms ---

(a) face-to-face communication in which the participants are in the same physical
context and whichmakes use of visual aids and non-verbal elements to convey a
message. It includes direct conversation, speeches, presentations, discussions
and interviews. Since it is a face-to-face communication between the sender and
the receiver, body language and choice of tone play a significant role;

(b) using mechanical devices like signals, buzzer and telephone. Oral
communication has several advantages. It saves time,has a great impact on the
audience, offers ample scope for clarification and garners immediate feedback.It
is an ideal tool of persuasion and is an effective means of conveying our
emotions and feelings. At the same time there are certain disadvantages too.
Since it is not documented oral communication has no legal validity. It is
unsuitable for lengthy messages. Oral messages cannot be retained for long.
Words once uttered cannot be taken back and may lead to misunderstandings.

●Written Communication

It is one of the oldest forms of communication. In this type of communication the

sender uses the written mode to transmit his messages which include graphs,
charts, bulletins, reports and e-mails. Written communication progressed through
three stages called ‘Information Communication Revolution.’ The first stage is the
pictograph stage in which written communication first emerged through the use of
pictographs. The pictographs were engraved on stones; hence written
communication was immobile. During the second stage, writing began to appear
on papyrus, paper, clay, wax etc. Common alphabets were introduced and they
led to the uniformity of language across large distances. Gutenberg invented the
printing press in the 15th century which was a leap in technology. The third stage
/ post-Gutenberg stage is characterized by the transfer of information through
controlled waves and electronic signals. Written communication has several
advantages. It creates a permanent record and is a permanent means of

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communication. It helps us to store information for future reference. All recipients
receive the same information. It permits revision and has legal validity. It helps an
organization to lay down its policies and rules and is instrumental in its
development and smooth functioning. It assists in the proper delegation of
responsibilities and provides ready records and references. There are some
disadvantages too. The stationery and the man-power needed to
write/type/deliver involve huge sums of money. Writing is time consuming and
there is no immediate response. Moreover poor writing skills have a negative
impact. Unfortunately writing has become a lost art.

●Organizational communication

An organization is defined as a social unit of people systematically structured and

managed to pursue collective goals on a continuing basis. In an organization
there is a management structure that determines relationships between functions
and positions, responsibilities and authority. Every organization has a hierarchy
but communication flows in various directions (upward communication,
downward communication, horizontal) within the organization. Such
communication follows logic and empirical evidence and is different from day to
day communication. Organizational communication is the process whereby
verbal, non-verbal and mediated messages are used to communicate matters of
interest for the benefit of the organization. Organizational communication is
usually arranged in networks such as chain, wheel, circular etc. It is important
because it motivates the members by informing and clarifying them about the
task to be done and about improving their performance. It helps in decision
making by setting all the relevant information to the decision makers. It alters
individuals’ attitudes to make them perform for the organization and for the
betterment of the self. It assists in the ‘controlling process’ thus helping the
organization functionally.

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◆Communication Network

It iis a pattern or flow of messages that traces the communication from start to
finish. Networks of communication are ways to organize communications, each
with different advantages. The networks are ;--

(a) ​Centralized ​:- ​where a leader directs the flow of communication and
controls it..

(b) ​Decentralized ​:- each member of the group has access to the ideas of all
the other members.

Authority is delegated by dividing the organization into several units, each of

which is responsible for its own performance / decisions.

●Types of Communication Networks

There are five common networks that come into play in formal communication in
an organization.

(a) Chain network ​:- ​It represents a vertical communication channel in which
communication can flow only upward or downward. The chain network has a
leader A who decides which messages should be passed on and how. This
network is used to convey messages that are legally correct.

(​ b) Y-network ​:- ​It iis a multi- level hierarchy where two subordinates report to
one senior with two levels of authority above the latter (that is, the senior)

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(c) Wheel network ​:- ​where several subordinates report to a superior. Though
the subordinates are of equal rank, all of them report to one superior, without any
interaction among themselves.

(d) Circle network ​:- allows employees to interact with adjacent members but
no further.

(e) All- channel network ​:- ​It is least structured; it enables employees to
communicate freely with the others. There are no restrictions on who should
communicate with whom. No employee assumes a leading role formally or
informally. Hence, everybody’s views are equally and openly shared.

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◆Socio-cultural aspects of communication

We cannot ascertain a speaker’s intent unless we are aware of the sociocultural

aspects that shape the content, form and language of a message. Thus, status,
role, social identities and social relationships become communicative symbols
signalled in the act of speaking. In order to interpret a message in a particular
context, one must have knowledge of the social values associated with the
speaker, his culture, community, ethnicity etc. For example, some communities
place great value on verbal abilities, others on silence. In a community which
values silence, a talkative person is viewed as abnormal and his messages are
not taken seriously. Similarly, in a community which values verbal ability,
mono-syllabic communication may be interpreted as arrogance, indifference etc.
Several factors contribute to the meaning of a piece of communication;--

(1) who the senders and receivers are

(2) what is the channel used (written, printed, body language, para language)

(3) what is the situation in which communication happens

(4) what the form of the message is – a word, a sentence, a letter, a poem, a
sermon or sales talk.

(5) what is the belief system of the community where communication happens.

◆The Impact of Information Technology on Communication

Communication is the process of exchanging ideas, thoughts, feelings and

ideologies. It is an important tool in maintaining personal, social and
organizational relationships. Information technology is that branch of science
which uses modern technology, especially devices like the computer and
telecommunication equipment to produce, transmit, retrieve and store
information.

As computers became popular, the use of www also increased. This has
revolutionized the ways in which we communicate. Till about the middle of the
20​th century, the fastest mode of communication was the telephone. But with the
advent of computers and internet, it is possible to transmit information instantly.

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The use of e-mail has made the postal service almost obsolete in many
countries. In India, the system of sending telegrams has already come to an end.
Internet has also made it possible to communicate face to face with devices like
the webcam. Moreover, multinationals and even smaller companies do much of
their organizational communication through video conferencing. Nowadays even
job interviews are done using such technology.

Telecommunication is an IT enabled service and mobile phones have become

an integral part of the life style of even the underdeveloped countries. It not only
facilitates communication but also opens up a wide world of social networking.
Using social networking sites, people carry on business, political and religious
propaganda. In recent years such sites have played a crucial part in social and
political revolutions. IT is now used for banking, in e-commerce and even in
maintaining international relations.

Barriers of time and space have been successfully breached through the use of
IT. IT has infiltrated even the class rooms in many advanced countries which
popularize e-learning. Power presentations are becoming very popular in class
room instruction. Even examination systems have changed to accommodate the
advantages of IT. Newscasts have also become high tech, taking the viewers to
‘ground zero’ when an important world event or a natural calamity occurs.
Medical science has also progressed with the facilities offerd by IT as now it is
possible for experts from across the globe to advise and intervene in critical
medical procedure.

Over and above all these advantages, IT has helped in the storage of an
immense quantum of information easily accessible to anyone who uses search
engines to access information. These virtual libraries are of great use to scholars,
students and even the common man.

Thus we can conclusively say that IT has revolutionized every aspect of life
and communication reducing the world to a ‘global village.’

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◆Information Overload

Information overload is a term popularized by the sociologist Alrin Toffler in his

famous work Future Shock (1970). Information overload is also called infobesity.
It refers to the difficulty a person can have in understanding an issue because of
too much information. Toffler says that information overload is a result of the new
technology in the information age. The condition of overload was originally
hypothesized by George Miller in 1956. He says that people have finite limits to
the amount of information they can assimilate and process at one time. When
this limit is passed, overload results and people become confused. The causes of
information overload are :--

(a) rapidly increasing rate of new information being produced.

(b) an increase in the available channels – www, internet, e-mail etc.
(c) large amount of contradictory and inaccurate information
(d) lack of a method for comparing and processing information.
A parallel term to information overload is information pollution coined by Jakob
Nielsen.

◆Sign language

A sign language is a language which uses manual communication and body

language to convey meaning instead of sound patterns. It involves
simultaneously combining hand shapes, and movement of the hands, arms or
body and facial expressions to express a speaker’s thoughts. Sign language is
used not only by the deaf, but also by people who can hear but cannot speak.
Sign languages are independent of oral languages and follow their own paths of
development. For example, British Sign Language and American Sign Language
are quite different and mutually intelligible even though the people of Britain and
America who can hear and speak share the same oral language, English. The
grammars of sign languages do not resemble that of spoken languages used in
the same geographical area. Sign languages exploit tactile features and also the
features of the visual medium. Oral language is by and large linear; only one
sound can be made or received at a time. Sign language, on the other hand, is
visual and so can use simultaneous expression.

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◆Barriers of Communication

Communication plays a major role in developing a relationship. It can also

affect the relationship among the members of a family or management in any
institute. Communication influences the effectiveness of instruction, performance
evaluation, and the tackling of problems related to discipline. Communication
should be always straightforward. There are certain barriers that make it
complex, difficult and frustrating. Some barriers of communication are :--

(1) Physiological barrier ​:- Physiological barriers to communication are related

to the limitations of the human body and the human mind (memory, attention and
perception) resulting from individuals’ personal discomfort, due to ill health, poor
eye sight or hearing difficulties.

(2) Poor listening skills :- Listening to another person id a difficult task. A

typical speaker utters about 125 words per minute; a typical listener can receive
400-600 words in a minute. Thus about three fourth of listening time is free time
which often side tracks the listener.

(3) Information overload :- We are surrounded by a wealth of information. It is

essential to stem the flow of information or else it is likely to be misinterpreted or
forgotten or overlooked. Consequently, communication may get distorted.

(4) Inattention ​:- At times we do not listen but only hear. For example, if you talk
to a person who is absorbed in his work, he will not pay any attention to you; he
will only hear you and may not get what you are talking about.

(5) Psychological barrier :- Psychological factors such as distrust, unhappy

emotions and misconception can jeopardize the process of communication. If a
person has personal problems such as worries and stress about a chronic
illness, it may impinge on his/her communication with others.

(6) Emotions ​:- The emotional state of a person at a particular point of time
affects his/her communication with others as it has an impact on the body
language (non-verbal communication). Our emotional state causes physiological
changes in our body that may affect the pronunciation, pressure of the speech
and tone of the voice of the sender as well as the perception, thinking process
and interpretation of information of the receiver during verbal communication.

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(7) Poor retention ​:- Human memory cannot function beyond the limit. We
cannot always retain all the facts/ information about what is told to us, especially
if we are not interested or not attentive.

(8) Physical and environmental distraction ​:- Physical things like the
telephone, excessively hot or cold work places, bright lights, glare on computer
screens, and loud noises can stand in the way of effective communication.

(9) Social Barriers :- Include the social psychological phenomenon of

conformity in which the norms, values and behaviour of an individual follow those
of the wider group. Social factors such as age, gender, socio economic status
and marital status also act as barriers to communication in certain situation.

(10) Cultural barriers :- Cultural barriers to communication often arise when

individuals in one social group develop different norms, values or behaviour to
individuals associated with another group. Cultural difference leads to difference
in interests, knowledge, values and tradition. So, these cultural factors are
barriers to communication.

(11) Semantic barriers ​:- language, slang, jargon etc. are some of the semantic
barriers.

(12) Linguistic barriers ​:- The use of difficult or inappropriate words in

communication can prevent people from understanding the message. Linguistic
differences between people can also hinder communication.

(13) Technological failure ​:- Messages not delivered due to technological

failure – if the receiver is not in mobile network area and the sender has not
activated delivery report in message setting.

(14) Unclear messages :- In terms of meaning, grammar and words may act as
a barrier to communication.

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