Semiconductor Materials and Physics 1

Semiconductor Materials and

1 Physics

INTRODUCTION

The growth in Electronics and Communication industry has been tremendous with the
invention of transistors and integrated circuit technology. The major cause of reduction in size,
delay, power, weight and cost in all areas of Electronics and Communication is the result of
improved devices and technology. Semiconductors, metals and insulators are required for
fabricating electronic devices, but the crucial role is played by semiconductors at present.

1.1 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

Semiconductors are materials with electrical conductivity between that of conductors and
insulators. Semiconductors, in general, have conductivity between 10-8-1cm-1 and 103 -1cm-1
(resistivity between 108 cm and 10-3 cm). The conductivity of a semiconductor can be varied
over a wide range, by the process of doping. Conductivity of doped semiconductors remain
almost independent of temperature over a wide range of temperature. These properties make
semiconductors suitable for fabricating electronic devices.

1.1.1 Elemental and Compound Semiconductors

Semiconductors which are constituted by single species of atoms are called elemental
semiconductors. Fourth group elements, Silicon (Si) and Germanium (Ge) are elemental
semiconductors.
As a semiconductor material, silicon has several advantages over other materials.
1. Silicon is abundant in nature. Well established procedure and technology are available
for its purification, crystal growth and processing.
2. Compared to germanium, silicon devices can be operated at higher temperature due to
its wider band gap.
3. A stable oxide (SiO2) is available for silicon which can be used:

a. as mask during fabrication process,

b. for isolation,
c. as passivation layer,
d. as gate oxide in MOSFETs.
Because of these, the fabrication process is simpler for silicon devices. Therefore, most of
the Integrated Circuits (ICs) and other electronic devices are made of silicon.
2 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

A semiconductor constituted by two or more different species of atoms is called compound

semiconductor.
There are lot of semiconductors which are compounds of two or more elements. Following
are some of the compound semiconductors.
III-V compounds: Compounds formed by elements from third and fifth groups are called
III- V compounds.
II-VI compounds: Compounds formed by elements from second and sixth groups are called II-
VI compounds.
A compound semiconductor consisting of two elements is called binary compound. Elements
from fourth group also form binary compounds as listed in Table 1.1. In addition to these,
compounds of three and four elements are also available. Compounds of three elements are
called ternary compounds e.g., GaAsP, AlGaAs. Compounds of four elements are called
quaternary compounds e.g., AlGaAsP, InGaAsP.

Table 1.1 List of binary compounds

IV group compounds III-V compounds II-VI compounds

SiC AlP ZnS
SiGe AlAs ZnSe
AlSb ZnTe
GaP CdS
GaAs CdSe
GaSb CdTe
InP
InAs
InSb

The properties of compound semiconductors (conductivity, band gap. etc) can be varied by
varying the percentage composition of its costituent elements. Semiconductor materials most
commonly used for fabricating some of the electronic devices are listed in Table 1.2.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO QUANTUM MECHANICS

Many of the observed phenomena such as discrete spectral lines emitted by heated gas etc.,
could not be explained by classical mechanics. It also fails to describe microscopic phenomena
related to semiconductors such as energy bands separated by band gaps etc. To analyze
microscopic phenomena in semiconductor materials, application of quantum mechanics is
essential. This section provides a brief introduction to quantum mechanics. Table 1.3 compares
classical mechanics with quantum mechanics.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 3
Table 1.2 Semiconductor Devices and Materials used for their Fabrication

Device Material
Diodes, Transistors Si, Ge
FETs, Monolithic IC's Si
LEDs GaAs, GaP, GaAsP
Solar cells Si, GaAs
Photo detector InSb, CdSe
Fluorescent screen (TV,-CRT, etc.) ZnS
Gunn diode (microwave diode) GaAs,InP
Semiconductor laser GaAs, AlGaAs
SCR, TRIAC Si

Table 1.3 Comparison Between Quantum Mechanics and Classical Mechanics

Classical mechanics Quantum mechanics

1. Deals with macroscopic objects. These Quantum mechanics abandons this
can be defined with infinite details. hypothesis of infinite detailed experience.
2. Elements of observation and calculation Elements of observation and calculation
are identical. need not be identical. Quantum mechanics
allows greater freedom of abstract
notations which may not have immediate
physical meaning.
3. No restriction in the accuracy of Sharp prediction of observation is
measurement or calculation. prevented by Heisenberg's Uncertainty
principle.
4. State of physical system is described by State is described by state function .
dynamical variables, (dynamical
variables are properties associated with a
physical system such as position,
momentum, etc.)

1.2.1 Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

Heisenberg's uncertainty principle predicts the uncertainty in simultaneous measurement of any

pair of variables with dimension ML2/T such as position and momentum, energy and time etc.,
as
P x  h (1.1)

E t  h (1.2)
4 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

h
Where, h= and h is Planck's constant
2
P is uncertainty in momentum
x is uncertainty in position
E is uncertainty in energy
t is uncertainty in time.

Example 1.1 A particle of mass 1g moves with a velocity of 150 m/s. The momentum of the
particle is not known to an accuracy more than 10-5 percentage. What is the limiting value of
accuracy in simultaneous measurement of position?

Momentum P = mv = 10-3 x 150 = 0.15 kgm/s

P = l0-5 % of P
10−5
= 0.15  = 1.5  10-8 kgm/s
100
h
P . x =
2
h
 x = ; h = 6.62  10-34 Js
2 .P
6.62  10−34
= = 7.02  10-27m
2  1.5  10−8
i.e., the uncertainty about the position of the particle is 7.02  10-27m.

1.2.2 Postulates of Quantum Mechanics

(1) There exists a state function (x,y,z,t), which contains all the measurable information
about each particle of a physical system.
(2) Operators are used to bridge between states and measurement. Every dynamical
variable has a corresponding linear operator. This operator is used on the state function
to obtain measurable information about the system. The dynamical variables and
corresponding operators are given in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 Dynamical Variables and Quantum Mechanical Operators

Dynamical variable Operator

Position x x
Momentum Px h 
.
j x
Total energy −h 
j t
Potential energy V(x)
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 5

(3) (a) The state function (x,t) and its space derivative are continuous, finite and single
x
valued for all values of x.
(b) The function  is normalised

 

  * dx = 1  | | dx = 1
2
i.e, or (1.3)
− −

where * is the complex conjugate of .

In three dimension,

 * dv = 1 (1.4)

where dv is an elemental volume about the point where * is determined and * is the
probability density. Equation (1.4) shows that the probability of finding the particle
anywhere in the volume is unity.
(4) The average value of a dynamical variable (y) corresponding to state function  is given by


<y> =   * y dy
−
(1.5)

< y > is the average value or expectation value over many observations.
(5) The operator for any measurement, for which an operator is not postulated, is determined by
expressing the measured quantities in terms of the basic variables. Then, substitute the
operators for the basic variables.

1.2.3 Schrodinger Wave Equation

Schrodinger wave equation is the fundamental equation in quantum mechanics, (just like
Newton's laws of motion in classical mechanics). The one dimensional Schrodinger wave
equation is represented by

 − h 2  2
jh = + V (1.6)
t 2m x 2

Equation (1.6) may be separated into time dependent and time independent equations as follows

− jh  (t )
=E (1.7)
 (t ) t
 2 2m
+ ( E − V ) = 0 (1.8)
x 2 h 2

where, (x,t) = (t) (x) and E is the kinetic energy of particle.

6 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

1.2.4 Schrodinger Equation Applied to a Free Particle

A particle moving in a region of constant potential energy is called a free particle. Such
a particle is not subjected to any force. For such a particle V = 0. and Schrodinger wave
equation (time independent) reduces to
d 2
+ k 2 = 0 (1.9)
dx 2
2mE P 2
where k = = = (1.10)
h h 
and is called the propagation constant or wave vector.
Equation (1.9) has solution
(x) = Aejkx

so that * = AA* = |A|2 is independent on x i.e., probability of finding the particle everywhere
is same and wave function does not provide any information about precise location of the
particle.

1.2.5 Schrodinger Equation Applied to a Particle in a Potential Well

Consider an electron in a one dimensional potential well of width a as shown in Fig. 1.1. The
potential at the sides of the well is  and inside the well is zero. The wave function of the
particle may be obtained by solving the time independent Schrodinger wave equation.

V= V=

V=0
0 x a

Fig. 1.1 An infinite potential well of width a

The Schrodinger equation inside the well may be written as

d 2
+ k 2 = 0 (1.11)
dx 2
2mE 8 2 mE
where, k2 = 2 = (1.11a)
h h2
This equation has solution of the form
x = A sin kx + B cos kx (1.12)
Since  = 0 at x = 0; B = 0
 x = A sinkx ; (1.12a)
The electron cannot penetrate the infinite potential barrier.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 7
i.e., at x = a, (a) =0, so that
Asinka = 0
 ka = n
n 2 2
k2 = (1.13)
a2
where, n = 1,2,3, . . .
h2 k 2
E= (by equation (l.lla)) (1.14)
8 2 m
Substituting for k2 from equation (1.13) in equation (1.14), energy of electron in nth state is
n2 h2
En = (1.15)
8ma 2
From normalisation condition for the wave function (equation (1.3))
a

 AA sin kxdx = 1
* 2
(1.16)
0

1 − cos 2kx
a
ie., A2  dx = 1
0
2
a
 x sin 2kx 
A  −
2

2 4k  0

But sin2ka = 0 Q ka = n
2 2 n x
 A= ; = sin (1.17)
a a a

The normalised wave function in the lowest three energy states are

2 x  
1 = sin ; half cycle variation over a  a =  (1.17a)
a a  2
2 2 x
2 = sin ; full wave variation over a ( a = ) (1.17b)
a a
2 3 x  3 
3 = sin ; three half cycle variation over a  a =  (1.17c)
a a  2 
n
For nth state a = (1.17d)
2
The energy levels and corresponding wave functions are shown in Fig. 1.2.
8 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

(a) Energy levels (b) Wave function 

Fig. 1.2 First three energy levels and wave functions for electrons in an infinite
potential well

n
a= (by equation (1.14))
2
n
k= (by equation (1.13))
a
1 P2
E = mv 2 = (1.18)
2 2m
2 2
hk
E= (by equation (1.14))
8 2 m
h2k 2
= (1.19)
2m
From equations (1.18) and (1.19),
P = hk where P is the electron momentum and k is the wave vector or wave number.

1.2.6. Schrodinger Equation Applied to a Particle in a Potential Wall

This considers the probability of locating an electron in a finite potential wall (potential wall) of
height V0 (V0 > E, energy of the electron).
Consider an electron with total energy E moving in region 1 of potential energy zero as
shown in Fig. 1.3.
At x = 0, the potential energy increases to V0. Schrodinger equation in region 1
d 2 1
2
+ k12 1 = 0
dx
8 2 mE
K12 = (1.20)
h2
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 9

Incident wave of
electron having
energy E
Potential Wall
V0>E

Region 1 x=0 Region 2

Fig. 1.3 Electron movement towards a potential wall

The solution to equation (1.20) is

1 = C sin k1x + Dcosk1x (1.21)

In region 2, the Schrodinger wave equation becomes

d 2 1 8 2 m
+ 2 ( E − V0 ) 2 = 0 (1.22)
dx 2 h
d 2
2
8 2 m(V0 − E )
− k 2

2 2 = 0; k 2
2 = (1.23)
dx 2 h2
The solution to this equation is
2 = Ae− k2 x + Bek2 x (1.24)
d
By postulate 3(a) ( and are continuous)
dx
1 = 2 and (1.25)
d 1 d 2
= at x = 0 (1.25b)
dx dx
 must be finite as x →
 B=0
Using equation (1.21)
Csin k1x + Dcos k1x |x=0 = Ae− k2 x |x=0
i.e., D=A
Differentiating equations (1.21) and (1.24) and applying condition (1.25b)
k1Ccos k1x - k1D sin k1x |x=0 = -k2 Ae− k2 x |x=0
k1C = -k2A
− k2 A
C =
k1
A
 1 = − k2 sin k1x + Acos k1x (1.26a)
k1
2 = Ae− k2 x (1.26b)
10 Semiconductor Materials and Physics
Incident wave V0

Incident wave of
electron having Potential Wall
energy E V0>E

2 = Ac − k2 x
V=0
Region 1 x = 0 Region 2

Fig. 1.4 Incident and penetrating wave into a potential barrier

The above solution shows that there is a finite probability that electron exists in region 2
where the potential energy barrier is higher than the energy of electrons as shown in Fig. 1.4.
Let an electron in region 1 be separated from region 3 by a finite potential energy barrier
(Vo > E) of finite width as shown in Fig. 1.5. Then, it can be shown that there will be a finite
probability that the electrons penetrate into region 3. This process is called tunneling. The
probability of tunneling increases with decrease in width (d) of the barrier. This principle is
made use of in the study of tunnel diodes, Zener break down, etc.

V = V0

Region 1 Region 2 Region 3

V=0 V=0

x=0 d →x
Fig. 1.5 Potential barrier of finite height and width

Example 1.2 For an electron in a one dimensional potential well of infinite height and width 2
A, calculate the expectation value of position (a) and momentum (Px). Assume that potential
inside the well is zero.

Solution
V=∞ V=∞

V=0
0 →x a
Fig. Ex. 1.2 Infinite potential well
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 11
a
Expectation value of x = < x > =  * x dx
0

From equation (1.17)

2 n x
= sin ,   * =  2
a a
a
 2 n x 
 x  =  x  sin  0dx
0 
a a 
n x
a
2
a 0
= x sin 2 dx
a
  2n x  
1 − cos  
2 
a
= x  a   dx
a0  2 
 
 
2n x
a a
1 1
=  xdx  x cos dx
a0 a0 a
2n x 2n x 
a

sin
1 x  1  a − 1.a sin a dx 
2 a

=   −  ax.
a  2 0 a  2n  2n


 0
2n x 
a

cos
a 1  ax  2n x  a
2
a 
= −  .sin  + . 
2 a  2n  a  2 n 2 n 
 0
but sin 2n = 0 and cos 2n = 1
a
<x>= = 1.0 A
2
h 
a
< Px > =  *  dx
0
j x
2h  n x   n x  
a
=  
ja 0 
sin  sin
a x 
 dx
a  
a
2h  n x n x n x n n x 
= sin  sin −  cos   sin dx 
ja  a a a a a 0
a
2h  2 n x n 1 2n x 
a 2 a
= sin − dx 
ja  a 0
2h  2 n x n 2n x
a
a 
=  sin −  cos 
ja  a 2a a 2n  0
2h  2 n x 1 2n x 
a

=  sin − cos =0
ja  a 4 a  0
12 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

1.3 STATISTICAL MECHANICS

The objective of statistical mechanics is to treat the behavior of very large number of identical
systems in a probabilistic fashion without going into the details of each and every individual
component of the ensemble (collection of physical systems). The result obtained by this
approach predicts the average behavior of the system based on the most probable values of the
properties.
The most important characteristic of statistical mechanics is the distribution function. The three
distribution functions that govern the distribution of particles among the various available
energy levels are:

(1) Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function

(2) Fermi-Dirac distribution function and
(3) Bose-Einstein distribution function.

1.3.1 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution Function

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution is applicable to classical particles such as gas molecules. These

particles are distinguishable1 and any number of them can occupy a given energy state, i.e.,
Pauli's exclusion principle is not applicable.
For a system with a continuous distribution of energy, the probability f(E) that a state E is
occupied is given by Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution as

f(E) = B(T)e -E/kT (1.27)

where B(T) is a constant and T is the absolute temperature.

1.3.2 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function

This distribution is applicable to indistinguishable particles at thermal equilibrium, which obey

Fault's exclusion principle. The Fermi-Dirac distribution function is given by
1
f(E) = ( E − EF )/ kT
(1.28)
1+ e
where, f(E) represents the probability of occupancy of available energy state E at
absolute temperature T
EF the Fermi energy level or Fermi level and
k the Boltzmann constant.

1
A set of identical particles are said to be distinguishable if they do not interact with each other except for occasional
random collisions. Separation between particles will be large compared to de-Broglie wave length ( = h/mv). There
is no interaction between wave functions of such particles. A set of particles is said to be indistinguishable if
separation between particles is comparable to or less than the de-Broglie wave length. Wave functions of such
particles interact with each other.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 13
1 1 1
f(EF) = ( E − EF )/ kT
= = for T > 0
1+ e 1+ e 0
2

i.e., the probability of occupancy of Fermi level is half, for any material under thermal
equilibrium at any temperature other than 0 K (T > 0 K). Fermi level is a conceptual energy
level, at which the probability of occupancy would be half, if it exists. Fermi level may be
considered as the energy level corresponding to average energy of electron in a semiconductor.
When E - EF  kT

f(E)  e− ( E − EF )/ kT = e EF / kT e− E / kT
= B(T) e− E / kT
i.e., Fermi-Dirac distribution function decays to Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.
In the case of a semiconductor, EC - EF >> kT implies that the electron concentration is low.
The probability of occupancy of quantum states in the conduction band is small in lightly doped
semiconductor. Thus, interaction between wave functions of particles become negligible or
particles become distinguishable. So, Pauli's exclusion principle is of no significance. This is
called diluteness condition. In such case Fermi-Dirac distribution function may be replaced with
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution function. Particles that obey Fermi Dirac statistics are called
fermions. Eg. electrons and holes in semiconductors. For more details of Perm Dirac
distribution function, see section 1.8.

1.3.3 Bose-Einstein Distribution Function

Some particles like photons and phonons are indistinguishable, but do not obey Pauli's
exclusion principle. The distribution function for indistinguishable particles that do not obey
Pauli's exclusion principle is given by
1
f(E) = ( E − EB )/ kT (1.29)
e −1
Equation (1.29) is called Bose-Einstein distribution function. For particles like helium atoms
parameter EB is obtained from the condition that the total number of particles in the system is
constant. For particles like photons and phonons, which has no rest mass, these conditions are
not valid because photons and phonons can be destroyed and recreated.
For such particles EB = 0 and Bose-Einstein statistics takes the form
1
f(E) = (1.30)
e E / kT
−1

1.3.4 Photons and phonons

Pilot on is a quantum of electro-mechanical energy whereas phonon is a quantum of

mechanical energy of lattice vibration.
h h
The momentum associated with a photon of energy h is and that with a phonon is
c u
where c is the velocity of light and u is the velocity of sound in solid medium. Since, u<<c, the
momentum associated with a phonon is very large compared to that of a photon. The rest mass
of photon and phonon are zero and these particles obey Bose-Einstein statistics.
14 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

1.4 CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS AND ENERGY BANDS

The valence electrons in an atom determine its chemical behavior and influence the type of
bound formed between the atoms that result in the formation of molecules and solids. The
strength with which the atoms are bound together determines the phase of the substance (gas.
liquid, solid etc). When atoms of a substance are separated by large distance, they form a gas.
When the average distance is comparable to the size of the atom. the substance behave as a
liquid. When the atoms are brought, close together so that their outer electron orbits overlap,
very strong interaction between atoms results which binds them together as a solid.

1.4.1 The Bonding of Atoms

A solid is formed by the chemical bonding of large number of atoms together. In this process,
the total energy of the system is reduced. The energy required to separate 1 gram atom (or 1
mole) of a solid into individual atoms is known as cohesive energy. This energy is different
from binding energy, which denotes the strength of a bond and is the negative of (lie energy
required to break the bond. e.g.. binding energy of electron in ground state of hydrogen atom is
13.6 eV. This also implies that this much energy is lost during formation of bond.
When atoms are brought, together to form a molecule, two kinds of forces become
important: attractive and repulsive. As the separation is decreased the attractive force comes into
play first. But as the spacing is decreased, the other orbits of electrons overlap and repulsive
force also arises. The chemical bond between atoms is formed at equilibrium spacing where the
two forces balance each other and the total potential energy reaches its minimum. Depending on
(lie nature of interaction between atoms, there are four different types of chemical bonding:
ionic covalent, metallic and molecular.
Ionic bond: The ionic bond is formed predominantly between electronegative and
electropositive elements e.g., NaCl. In ionic bonding the columbic forces (attractive between
Na+ and Cl- ions) pull the lattice together until a balance is reached with the repulsive forces at
equilibrium.
The ionic bond is fairly strong. Ionic substances are usually hard and have high melting and
boiling points. Since the valence electrons are tightly bound to the respective ions, the
movement of these electrons under an applied electric field is not possible and most ionic
substances arc insulators at room temperature. At higher temperature the ions themselves
become mobile and give rise to ionic conduction.
Covalent bond: The covalent bond is formed by sharing of electrons between the bonded
atoms. This sharing results from the overlap of bonding orbitals. The covalent bond is a bond
between atoms of the same polarity hence it is known as a homopolar bond.
Unlike ionic bond, the covalent bond is highly directional. The bond is very strong and the
material formed has very high melting and boiling points. The covalently bonded substances are
relatively poor conductors of electricity at normal temperatures.
Metallic bond: The metallic bond is formed between electropositive elements. The valence
orbit of all metal atoms is either an s subshell or a p subshell with usually 1 or 2 electrons. The
size of the outer shells in these atoms is rather large and the valence electrons are not as tightly
bound to the nucleus as in non-metals. In metals, the outer electron of each atom is contributed
to the crystal as a whole. The solid is made up of ions immersed in a sea of free electrons. The
forces holding the lattice together arises from the interaction ^between the positive ion core and
the sea of electrons.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 15
In metals, the bonds remain unsaturated and a large number of atoms can be held together by
the mutual sharing of electrons. The density of electrons is considerably lower than that allowed
by Pauli's exclusion principle. The number of states available is more than the number of
electrons. As a result, the electrons are able to move freely through the metal without
experiencing any significant change in their energy. Therefore metals are good conductors of
electricity. There are differences in the bonding in different metals.
Molecular bond: This bond is seen in inert gases and in some organic molecules. The binding
force arises from the dipolar forces between the bonded species. The dipolar forces are quite
weak and the substances exhibiting this type of bonding are characterized by low melting and
boiling points, and are poor conductors of electricity.

1.4.2 Crystalline State

Solid materials can be divided into two categories-amorphous and crystalline. In amorphous
materials, atoms are arranged in an irregular and random manner like the molecules in a liquid,
e.g., glass. A crystalline solid has a regular periodic arrangement of atoms. If this regular
arrangement of atoms extends over the whole sample, the material is said to be single
crystalline. A polycrystalline material consists of groups or clusters of single crystals of various
orientations that are joined together as shown in Fig. 1.6. The line separating the crystal section
of two different orientations is known as grain boundary.

1.4.3 Crystal Structure

Extremely pure semiconductor in crystalline form are used for fabricating electronic devices. A
crystal is a three dimensional structure composed of atoms arranged on a lattice. A lattice is a
periodic arrangement of points in space. It is defined by three fundamental translation vectors a,
b and c. The arrangement of lattice points looks the same from any point r as it looks from any
other point r' given by
r' = r + n1a + n2b + n3c = r + T
where n1, n2, n3 are integers. The vector T = n1a + n2b + n3c is called the lattice translation
vector.

Grain boundaries

Fig. 1.6 Two-dimensional representation of arrangement of atoms in polycrystalline

material
16 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

1.4.4 Terminology Related with Crystal Structure

Unit cell: A unit cell is the smallest structure that will generate the entire crystal from simple
translation in three directions.
Primitive unit cell: If there is only one lattice point per unit cell, it is called a primitive unit
cell. Fig. 1.7 shows unit cells and primitive unit cells.
Co-ordination number: The number of nearest neighbors (number of nearest lattice points to
any lattice point) in a crystal arrangement is called co-ordination number.

Fig. 1.7 Two-dimensional crystal lattices 1, 2, 3 and 4 represent unit cells. 1, 2 and 3 are
primitive unit cells and 4 is non-primitive unit cell
Tetrahedral radius: The radius of atoms (in place of lattice points) constituting the crystal is
called tetrahedral radius.
Cubic lattice: If the unit cell of crystal lattice has the shape of cube, the resulting lattice is
called cubic lattice.
Lattice constant: In a cubic lattice the length of one side of the cube (a) is called lattice
constant.
Packing efficiency: It is the ratio of the actual volume occupied by atoms in a lattice to the total
volume, expressed as a percentage.

1.4.5 Important Cubic Crystal Structures

Simple cubic: For a simple cubic structure, lattice points are located only at the corners of the
unit cell. Its co-ordination number is 6 and nearest neighbor distance is a. The structure of a
simple cubic crystal is shown in Fig. 1.8.

Fig. 1.8 Unit cell of simple cubic crystal

 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 17
Body Centered Cubic (BCC): In addition to those in simple cubic structure, a lattice point is
located at the centre of the cube as shown in Fig. 1.9. Its co-ordination number is 8 and nearest
3
neighbor distance is a.
2

Fig. 1.9 Structure of body centered cubic crystal

Face Centered Cubic (FCC): In addition to those in simple cubic, lattice points are located at
the centre of all the faces of the cube as shown in Fig. 1.10. Co-ordination number is 12 and
a
nearest neighbor distance is .
2

Fig. 1.10 Structure of face centered cubic crystal

Diamond lattice: Diamond lattice is formed by two inter penetrating FCCs, with the second
1 1 1
FCC lattice displaced from the first by  , ,  as shown in Fig. 1.11. The coordination
4 4 4
number is 4 and nearest neighbor distance is a. Silicon, germanium and carbon (diamond) have
this crystal structure.
18 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Fig. 1.11 Structure of diamond lattice; hatched-circles represent atoms of second FCC
located inside first FCC

Zinc blend lattice: In diamond lattice, if the lattice points in the two FCCs are atoms of
different elements, it becomes a zinc blend lattice, e.g., GaAs, in which one FCC is formed by
Ga and the other FCC by As atoms. The co-ordination number is 4 and the nearest neighbor
distance is 43 a.
Example 1.3 Determine the packing efficiency of simple cubic, body centered cubic, face
centered cubic and diamond lattices.
Solution
a. Simple cubic
a
Tetrahedral radius r =
2
4  a3
Volume of sphere =  r3 =
3 6
1
Number of atoms per unit cell =  8 = 1
8
Volume of unit cell = a3
Volume of spheres in one unit cell
 Packing efficiency =  100
Volume of unit cell
a3

= 6  100 =   100 = 52%
3
a 6
b. BCC
3
Tetrahedral radius r = a
4
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 19

4 3 3 3  3a 2
Volume or sphere = a =
3 43 16
1
Number of atoms per unit cell =  8 + 1 = 2 -x8+l=2
8
a3
2 3
Packing efficiency = 16  100
3
a
 3
=  100 = 68%
8
c. FCC
a
Tetrahedral radius r =
2 2
 a3
Volume or sphere =
12 2
1 1
Number of atoms per unit cell = 8 +  6 = 4
8 2
 a3
4
Packing efficiency = 12 2  100
a3

= = 72%
3 28
d. Diamond lattice
3
Tetrahedral radius r = a
8
 3 3
Volume or sphere = a
128
1 1
Number of atoms per unit cell = 8 + 6+ 4 = 8
8 2
3
a
8 3
128  100
Packing efficiency = 3
a
 3
= = 34%
16
1.4.6 Crystal Axes and Planes

Cubic crystal directions are described in terms of Miller notation. Consider, for example, any
plane in space which satisfies the equation
x y z
+ + =1 (1.31)
a b c
20 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Here, a, b and c are intercepts made by the plane at x, y and z axes respectively. Writing h, k
and l as the reciprocals of these intercepts, the plane may be described by

hx + ky + lz = 1 (1.32)

The Miller indices for this plane is written as (hkl). Integer values are chosen for these
indices as multiples of the edges of the unit cell. If an intercept is negative a bar is used for that
Miller index. For example, (Ill) shows that the intercept on the x-axis is -1.
The configuration of atoms in many of the Miller planes in a cubic crystal are identical.
Thus, the planes (001), (010), (100), (001), (010) and (100) are essentially similar in nature and
they are denoted as {001} planes. Some of the principle crystal planes are shown in Fig. 1.12.

Fig. 1.12 Principal crystal planes

Indices of lattice plane direction (i.e., the line normal to the lattice plane) are simply the
vector components of the direction resolved along the co-ordinate axes. Thus the (111) plane
has a direction written as [111], and so on. This is an extremely convenient feature of the Miller
index system for cubic crystals. The set of directions [001], [010], [100], [001], [010], [100] is
written as < 001 >. Fig 1.13 show different crystal directions.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 21

Fig. 1.13 Crystal directions

The separation between two adjacent parallel planes {hkl} is given by

a
d= (1.33)
h2 + k 2 + l 2
d = a for {100} planes
d = 0.707a for {110} planes
d = 0.577a for {111} planes
{111} planes are the closest spaced among low index planes.

1.5 ENERGY BANDS IN SOLIDS

When atoms are brought together the application of Pauli's exclusion principle becomes
important. When two atoms are completely isolated from each other so that there is no
interaction of electron wave functions between them, they can have identical electronic
structures. Electrons of isolated atoms occupy discrete energy levels as implied by Bohr
postulates and Pauli's exclusion principle. As the spacing becomes smaller, electron wave
functions begin to overlap. The Pauli's exclusion principle states that no two electrons in a given
interacting system may have the same quantum state. Thus, there must be a splitting of the
discrete energy levels of the isolated atoms into new levels belonging to the pair rather than to
the individual atoms.
In a solid, many atoms are brought together, so that the split energy levels essentially form
continuous bands of energies. Fig. 1.14 illustrates the imaginary formation of diamond crystal
from isolated carbon atoms.
Each isolated carbon atom has an electronic structure 1s2 2s2 2p2 in the ground state. Each
atom has available states of 2 in 1s, 2 in 2s and 6 in 2p. If we consider N atoms there will be 2
N, 2 N and 6 N states of 1s, 2s and 2p respectively.
As the inter-atomic spacing reduces, these energy levels split into bands beginning with the
outer shell. As the '2s' and '2p' bands grow, they merge into a single band composed of mixture
22 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

of energy levels of 2s and 2p. This is called hybridization of bands. This band of levels from 2s
and 2p consists of 8 N states and 4 N electrons.

Carbon atoms

6 electrons/atom
N atoms
6 N electrons
6 levels
2 N electrons
2 states
2 N electrons

Fig. 1.14 Formation of energy band in diamond crystal. Imaginary diagram with electron
energy as a function of inter-atomic spacing

As the distance between atoms decreases further, this band again splits into two different
bands separated by a gap as shown in Fig. 1.14. At equilibrium inter-atomic spacing of
diamond, these bands are separated by an energy gap. The upper band, called the conduction
band, contains 4N states as does the lower band, called the valence band. The energy gap
between these two bands does not contain any available energy states for the electrons to
occupy. Thus, this band is called forbidden band.
At absolute zero temperature, the electrons will occupy the lowest energy levels available to
them. Therefore 1s band will consists of 2 N electrons, and the remaining 4 N electrons will
occupy the valence band. Thus the valence band is completely filled and the conduction band is
empty at 0 K.
For the electrons to experience acceleration in an applied electric field, they must be able to
move into other energy states. This means that there must be empty states available for the
electrons to move. In diamond structure at 0 K, the valence band is completely filled so that no
charge transport within the valence band is possible as there is no empty state for the electrons
to move. There is no electron in the conduction band and so there is no charge transport in the
conduction band. Thus diamond is a perfect insulator at 0 K.
If energy equal to the band gap is given to an electron in the valence band, it gets excited to
the conduction band. This creates a vacancy in the valence band. This vacancy in the valence
band is called a hole. The electron in the conduction band is called a free electron, because there
are plenty of states for the electrons to move. Thus an Electron Hole Pair (EHP) is generated. If
the energy used for this type of generation is thermal energy, the generation process is called
thermal generation.
At a given temperature the number of electrons and holes generated depends on the band
gap. The lower the band gap, the more the EHPs generated at a given temperature. The electrons
can easily move in the conduction band resulting in a current flow, if a field is applied.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 23
Similarly, the holes or vacancies in valence band can also provide charge transport in the
valence band.
Energy band diagram is a characteristic property of solids. It depends on the coupling of
atoms in the solid. Fig. 1.15 represents a typical energy band diagram where EC represents the
minimum energy in the conduction band and EV represents the maximum energy of electron in
the valence band.
EC - EV = Eg is the band gap of the semiconductor.
Eg
EV + represents the middle of the band gap. Ei is called intrinsic level, which is the
2
Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor and is located at the middle of the band gap.

Increasing
Conduction band electron energy
EC
Eg/2
Ei = EF
Eg/2
Increasing
Valence band EV
hole energy

Fig. 1.15 Energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor

In the energy band diagram, usually x-axis represents distance (along the direction of carrier
movement) and y-axis represents electron energy, i.e., electron energy increases upward and
hole energy increases downward.
The upper end of conduction band and lower end of valence band are usually not shown in
the energy band diagram, the conduction band minimum (EC) and valence band maximum (EV)
are sufficient. The energy band diagram is useful as a tool for analysing devices.

1.5.1 Energy Band Diagram of Insulator, Semiconductor and Metal

An insulator has a large band gap, so that the thermally generated carriers are negligible at room
temperatures as shown in Fig. 1.16. The band gap of insulators are usually greater than 4 eV.
The energy band structure of semiconductor is similar to that of diamond except for the
difference in band gap (Fig. 1.16). The conductivity of semiconductor is also zero at 0 K. Its
conductivity can be increased by thermal or optical generation of EHPs. At room temperature,
semiconductors have higher conductivity than insulators, due to its smaller band gap. The band
gap of a semiconductor is generally less than 4 eV.
24 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Fig. 1.16 Energy band diagram of metal, semiconductor and insulator

In metals the bands either overlap or are only partially filled. Thus electrons and empty states
are mixed in the bands, so that electrons can move freely under the influence of electric of field.

Table 1.5 Band gaps of some insulators and semiconductors

Material InSb InAs Ge Si InP GaAs GaP GaN ZnS Si3N4 Diamond SiO2
Band gap 0.18 0.36 0.67 1.11 1.35 1.43 2.26 3.4 3.6 5.0 5.5 9.0

1.5.2. Direct and Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors

The variation of electron energy (E) as a function of wave vector (K) along the principal
direction of crystal is shown in figure 1.17(a) and (b). If the K values are equal for an electron
with minimum energy in the conduction band (electron at the bottom of the conduction band)
and an electron with maximum energy in the valence band (electron at the top of the valence
band) as in Fig. 1.17(a), the semiconductor is called direct band gap semiconductor. For direct
band gap semiconductor, electrons in the conduction hand minimum and valence band
maximum have the same momentum. Therefore an electron in the conduction band can directly
recombine with a hole in the valence band, releasing the difference in energy (E  Eg = h) as a
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 25
photon. (Electrons in the conduction band usually occupy available states at bottom of
conduction band, where the electron energy is minimum and holes occupy available states at
top of the valence band where hole energy is minimum.) Such materials are used for making
LEDs. e.g., GaAs.

Fig. 1.17 E- k plots (a) direct bandgap semiconductor (b) indirect bandgap semiconductor

In Fig. 1.17(b) the electron in conduction band minimum and valence band maximum have
different values of k. Thus, the momentum values (P = hk) are different for electrons at
conduction band minimum and valence band maximum. Therefore, an electron cannot
recombine directly with a hole in the valence band by releasing a photon as the momentum
cannot be conserved. The transition must follow conservation of energy and momentum.
The momentum of photon is negligibly small, and momentum of the system cannot be
conserved by release of photon. In this case, electron first transfers to an intermediate level Er
called recombination centre by release of phonon and from there to the valence band.
Semiconductors with different k values for conduction band minimum and valence band
maximum, shown in Fig. 1.17(b) are called indirect band gap semiconductors, e.g., Ge, Si,
AlAs. In these semiconductors recombination process results in release of energy as heat.

1.5.3 Effective Mass

The electrons in a crystal are not completely free, but interact with the periodic potential of the
lattice. Therefore, the "wave particle" motion is not same as that in free space. Thus while
applying the usual equations of electrodynamics to charge carriers in solids we must use altered
values of mass.
The electron momentum P is given by
P = mv = h k
1
E = mv 2
2
P2 h2k 2
= =
2m 2m
Electron energy is parabolic with wave vector k. The electron mass is inversely related to the
curvature (second derivative) of the E - k relationship
26 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

d 2E h2
=
dk 2 m
Thus, the effective mass of an electron (mn*) in a band with a given E - k relationship is
given by
2
h
mn* = (1.34)
d 2E
dk 2
The energy of electron in the conduction band (En) and energy of hole in the valence band
(Eh) are given by
P2
En = EC + (1.35)
2mn*
P2
Eh = EV + (1.35a)
2m*p
m*p is the effective mass of hole.
Kinetic energy of electron at E = EC and hole at E = EV are zero.
The energy band diagram of GaAs is shown in Fig. 1.18. It has three conduction band
 d 2E 
minima L, and . The curvature  2  is maximum for r minimum. Therefore the effective
 dk 
mass of electron in the r band is much less than that in other two bands.

Fig. 1.18 Energy band diagram of GaAs

An electron at conduction band minimum has positive effective mass (positive curvature)
and at valence band maximum has negative effective mass (negative curvature). Valence band
electrons with negative charge and negative mass move in an electric field in the same direction
as holes with positive charge and positive mass. Thus charge transport in valence band can be
fully accounted by hole motion.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 27
The effective mass of electrons and holes in various semiconductors are listed in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6

Ge Si GaAs
*
m n
0.55mo 1.1mo 0.067mo
m*p 0.37mo 0.56mo 0.48mo
Note: mo is the free space mass of electron.

1.5.4 Conduction by Holes

Consider a semiconductor specimen of volume V with N semiconductor atoms. There will be

4N states in the valence band and 4N states in the conduction band. At 0 K all the states in the
valence band are filled with electrons. For every electron (j) with velocity, vj, there is another
electron (j') with opposite velocity (-vj) as shown in Fig. 1.19.

Fig. 1.19 Valence band of semiconductor with all states filled (electrons j and j' are shown)

There fore, the current density due to holes is

−q 4 N
J=  k = 0 ,
V k =1
for filled valence band (1.36)

where V is the volume of semiconductor specimen and v is the velocity of electron.

If jth electron is removed from valence band 4N
−q  4 N  −q
J=  k −  j  = (0 −  j ) (1.37)
V  k =1  V
i.e., removing an electron with velocity vj from the valence band produces a current density in
the direction of velocity. This may be considered as hole current density, which is in the
direction of movement of hole.
28 Semiconductor Materials and Physics
E


+ A B

Valence band
Fig. 1.20 Hole Movement in Valence Band

Consider a vacant state in the valence band or hole at A. When an electric field is applied in
the positive x-direction as shown in Fig. 1.20, an electron at B moves into the vacant state at A.
Now, the position of hole is transferred from A to B. i.e., hole moves in a direction opposite to
the direction of movement of electron. This process continues and hole continues to move in the
direction of electric field resulting in a current flow in the direction of hole movement. This
current is called hole current since it is due to the presence of holes in the valence band and no
free electrons are involved in this conduction process.

1.6 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

A semiconductor crystal with no impurities or defects is called an intrinsic semiconductor. At 0

K the conduction band is empty and valence band is completely filled as in Fig. 1.21(a). Thus,
there are no mobile charge carriers at 0 K. Hence, the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor
at absolute zero temperature is zero. But as temperature increases, electrons from the valence
band are excited to the conduction band and the conductivity increases with temperature. The
conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors decrease with increase in band gap, as more energy is
required to excite electron from valence band to conduction band when the band gap is more.
If an electron in the valence band gets energy equal to band gap (Eg) it gets excited from
valence band to conduction band. As a result a vacancy is created in the valence band (vacancy
in the valence band is nothing but a hole) and an electron in the conduction band. i.e., an
Electron-Hole Pair (EHP) is generated. Generation due to thermal excitation of electrons from
valence band to conduction band is called intrinsic generation.

Empty
conduction band Conduction band
EC EC

Eg Eg

EV EV
Filled
valence band Valence band

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.21 Energy band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor

Since electrons and holes are generated in pair, the concentration of electrons in the
conduction band and holes in the valence band are equal as shown in Fig. 1.21(b). The
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 29
concentration of electrons or holes in the intrinsic semiconductor under thermal equilibrium
(no, po) is referred to as intrinsic carrier concentration (ni). For an intrinsic semiconductor,

no = p o = n i

Intrinsic carrier concentration is a function of temperature. As temperature increases thermal

generation rate increases, resulting in the increase of intrinsic carrier concentration.
Recombination is the opposite process of generation. When an electron in the conduction
band falls to a vacancy in the valence band, by releasing energy, an electron in the conduction
band and a hole in the valence band vanish as shown by Fig. 1.22. This process is called
recombination of EHP.
EC EC

EV EV

(a) Before (b) After

Fig. 1.22 Recombination of electron hole pair

Under thermal equilibrium, the rate of generation and rate of recombination are equal in any
semiconductor so that carrier concentrations remain steady. The thermal generation rate at
temperature T is given by g(T) = r ni2 . Recombination rate (r) is proportional to the product of
electron and hole concentrations and is expressed as

r = rnp

where r - is a proportionality constant depending on the recombination mechanism

n - total electron concentration
p - total hole concentration

At thermal equilibrium, n = no and p = po

 r = rnopo
where no - electron concentration under thermal equilibrium
po - hole concentration under thermal equilibrium
For intrinsic semiconductor no = po = ni
 ri = r . ni2 = g (T )
where g(T) represents the thermal generation rate.

1.6.1 Valence Bond Model

Each atom of semiconductor (Si) shares its four valence electrons with four other atoms, so that
all atoms get a stable structure with 8 electrons in valence shell as shown in Fig. 1.23 All the
electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus at 0 K. No free electron or hole exists at 0 K. If energy
equal to binding energy is given, electrons come out of the bond, breaking the bonds. (This
30 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

energy is equivalent to the energy band gap). Now, these electrons become part of the crystal as
a whole and are called free electrons. The broken bond is called a hole. As temperature
increases more and more electrons break the bonds resulting in generation of more EHPs.

Fig. 1.23 Valence bond model of intrinsic semiconductor

1.7 EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

In a semiconductor, charge carriers may be purposely introduced by adding impurities to it. This
process is called doping. Depending on the type of impurities, the doped semi conductor may be
n-type or p-type. In a doped semiconductor, the electron concentration (no) and hole
concentration (po) are different (no ≠ po ≠ ni). Such a semiconductor is called extrinsic
semiconductor. When impurities are added to an otherwise pure semiconductor, additional
energy levels are introduced in the band structure of the semiconductor. Usually, these energy
levels lie within the band gap.

1.7.1 n-type Semiconductors

A semiconductor doped with a pentavalent impurity is called n-type semiconductor. Pentavalent

impurity introduces energy level in the band gap, close to the conduction band edge as shown in
Fig. 1.24. At 0 K these levels are completely occupied by electrons (5th electron of the
pentavalent impurity at absolute zero temperature occupy this level). These levels donate free
electrons to the semiconductor on increasing the temperature slightly. So, these levels are called
donor levels. The energy difference between conduction band and donor level (EC - ED) is called
ionization energy. (The ionization energy is defined as the energy required to ionize a donor or
an acceptor atom).
The ionization energy is very small (of the order of meV), so that very small energy
sufficient to excite electrons from donor level to conduction band. Therefore, at room
temperature all the electrons in the donor level are excited to the conduction band. Each
pentavalent impurity atom donates a free electron to the semiconductor. So, pentavalent
impurities are also known as donor impurities.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 31

Fig. 1.24 Energy band diagram of n-type semiconductor (a) at 0 K (b) at room
temperature

Due to doping, electron concentration increases from intrinsic carrier concentration (ni) to a
value approximately equal to the donor impurity concentration (doping concentration). Increase
in electron concentration results in an increased recombination rate, [r  np], thus reducing
electron and hole concentrations. Under thermal equilibrium, generation and recombination
rates balances each other, resulting in a reduced concentration of holes compared to the intrinsic
value. Thus in an n-type semiconductor no > ni and po < ni. Hence, electrons are referred to as
majority carriers and holes as minority carriers in an n-type semiconductor.
The thermal generation rate in a semiconductor material at a given temperature is a constant,
independent of doping. Therefore, for n-type semiconductor
thermal generation rate g(T) =  r ni2
recombination rate r = rnp
= rnopo under thermal equilibrium.
The recombination rate balances with generation rate under thermal equilibrium.
 r = g(T)
i.e., rnopo =  r ni2
or nopo = ni2

Table 1.7 Ionization Energies of Impurities in Silicon

Element Type of level lonization energy (eV)

Boron Acceptor 0.045
Aluminium. Acceptor 0.057
Gallium Acceptor 0.065
Phosphorous Donor 0.044
Arsenic Donor 0.049
Antimony Donor 0.039

Valence Bond Model

When a pentavalent impurity is added to the silicon crystal, one of the silicon atoms is replaced,
by an impurity atom as shown in Fig. 1.25. This introduces an excess of one electron after
completing the bond. At 0 K this electron is bound to the impurity atom itself and is not free to
move. So, the conductivity of n-type semiconductor is zero at 0 K. If thermal energy equal to
32 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

binding energy is supplied to this electron, the impurity atom gets ionized and electron becomes
free (not bound to any of the atoms) to participate in the conduction process.

Fig. 1.25 Valence Bond Model of n-Type Semiconductor

1.7.2 p-type Semiconductor

A semiconductor doped with trivalent impurities like Boron, Gallium etc., forms a p-type
semiconductor. These impurities introduces energy levels in the band gap of silicon, germanium
etc., near the valence band edge as shown in Fig. 1.26. These energy levels are vacant at 0 K.
Thus, these levels can accept electrons from the valence band and are called acceptor levels
(EA).
The energy difference between acceptor level and valence band edge (EA - Ev) is very small
(~ meV). So, as the temperature increases slightly (~100-150 K), electrons excited from
valence band to acceptor level creating holes in the valence band. The hole concentration
increases to the acceptor doping concentration (NA). As the hole concentration increases,
recombination rate increases. This results in the reduction of electron and hole concentrations.
Under thermal equilibrium, generation rate (  r ni2 ) and recombination rate (rnopo) balances
each other, so that po > ni and no < ni. Thus, holes are majority carriers and electrons are
minority carriers in a p-type semiconductor.

Fig. 1.26 Energy band diagram of p-type semiconductor (a) at 0 K (b) at room
temperature
Generation process by thermal excitation of electrons from donor level to conduction band or
valence band to acceptor level is called extrinsic generation. In extrinsic generation only
majority carriers are generated.
There are impurities, which can act as donors as well as acceptors. For example, silicon in
GaAs usually acts as a donor impurity when a silicon atom replaces a Ga atom. But, if there is
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 33
an excess of As vacancies during growth process, Si impurities may sit on As sites. In that case,
silicon acts as an acceptor impurity. This type of impurity, which can serve as acceptor as well
as donor is called amphoteric impurity.

1.8 CARRIER CONCENTRATION

Free electrons and holes are the charge carriers in a semiconductor. To obtain expression for
carrier concentration we must investigate the distribution of carriers over the available energy
states. For this we can use Fermi-Dirac distribution function, as electrons in semiconductors
obey Fermi-Dirac statistics.
The distribution of electrons over a range of allowed energy levels at thermal equilibrium is
given by
1
f(E) = ( E − EF )/ kT
1+ e
where, k is Boltzmann's constant = 8.62 × 10-5 eV/K = 1.38 × 10-23J/K
T is absolute temperature
EF is Fermi level
f(E) is Fermi-Dirac distribution function.
f(E) represents the probability that an available energy state at E is occupied by an electron at
absolute temperature T under thermal equilibrium. (Thermal equilibrium refers to a
semiconductor specimen not acted upon by any external force. Under thermal equilibrium the
only generation process is thermal generation. Thermal generation and recombination rates
balance each other under equilibrium.)
Probability of occupancy of Fermi level in any material under thermal equilibrium is 12 , for r
> 0. Thus, if an energy level is available at the Fermi level, its probability of occupancy will be
half. The Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E) has a rectangular distribution at absolute zero
temperature as shown in Fig. 1.27.
1 1
At T = 0K and E < EF; f(E) = −
= =1
1+ e 1+ 0
1 1
At T = 0K and E > EF; f(E) = 
= =0
1+ e 1+ 
This implies that at 0 K all available energy states up to EF are filled with electrons and all
the available states above EF are empty. At T > 0K some probability exists for states above EF to
be filled and states below EF to be vacant. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.27. Fermi Dirac
distribution function has a fixed shape with respect to the Fermi level at a given temperature.

Fig. 1.27 Fermi-Dirac distribution function f(E) vs E for different temperatures

34 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

While applying Fermi-Dirac distribution function to semiconductors it should be noted that

f(E) is the probability of occupancy of an available energy state at E. Thus, if there is no
available state at E (e.g., in the band gap of a semiconductor) there is no possibility of finding
an electron at E.
Example 1.4 Show that the probability of a state E above EF is filled equals probability that a
state E below EF is empty. (i.e., f(E) vs. E diagram is antisymmetric about E = EF).
Solution
Probability that a state E above EF is filled
1
= f(EF + E) = ( EF +E − E fF )/ kT
1+ e
1
= (Ex.1.4a)
1 + eE / kT

Fig. Ex. 1.4 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function

Probability that a state E below EF is filled

= f(EF - E)
Probability that a state E below EF is vacant
= 1 - f(EF - E)
1
=1- ( EF −E − EF ) / kT
1+ e
1 e−E / kT
= 1− −E / kT
=
1+ e 1 + e−E / kT
Dividing numerator and denominator with e −E / kT

1
1 - f(EF - E) = (Ex.l.4b)
1 + eE / kT

From equations (Ex.l.4a) and (Ex.l.4b), the probability of a state E above EF is filled equals
the probability that a state E below EF is empty. Or the Fermi dirac distribution function is
antisymmetric with respect to the Fermi level.
Example 1.5. Determine, a. the probability of occupancy of following energy levels at 0 K,
300 K and 600 K;
(i) 0.26 eV above EF
(ii) 0.52 eV above EF
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 35
b. the probability of vacancy of the following levels at 0 K, 300 K and 600 K
(i) 0.26 eV below EF
(ii) 0.52 eV below EF

Solution
a. Probability of Occupancy

at 0 K
(i) f(EF + 0.26) = 0
(ii) f(EF + 0.52) = 0
at 300 K, kT = 0.026 eV
1
(i) f(EF + 0.26) = 0.26
= 4.54 × 10-5
1+ e 0.026

1
(ii) f(EF + 0.52) = 0.52
= 2.061 × 10-9
1+ e 0.026

at 600 K, kT = 0.052 eV
1
(i) f(EF + 0.26) = 0.26
= 6.693 × 10-3
1+ e 0.052

1
(ii) f(EF + 0.52) = 0.52
= 4.54 × 10-5
1+ e 0.052

1 + e 0.052

b. Probability of Vacancy

at 0 K
(i) 1 - f(EF - 0.26) = 0
(ii) 1 - f(EF - 0.52) = 0
at 300 K
1
(i) 1 - f(EF - 0.26) = −0.26
= 4.54 × 10-5
1+ e 0.026

1
(ii) 1 - f(EF - 0.52) = −0.52
= 2.061 × 10-9
1+ e 0.026

at 600 K
1
(i) 1 - f(EF - 0.26) = −0.52
= 6.693 × 10-3
1+ e 0.026

1
(ii) 1 - f(EF - 0.52) = −0.52
= 4.54 × 10-5
1+ e 0.052

Remark: The symmetry of f(E) vs E plot with reference to EF can be observed in the above results.
36 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

1.8.1 Fermi-Dirac Distribution Function Applied to Semiconductors

Fig. 1.28 shows the energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor along with f(E) with
common energy axis. For intrinsic semiconductors, probability of occupancy in conduction
band equals the probability of vacancy in valence band. i.e., 1 - f(EV) = f(EC). Because of the
symmetry of f(E) vs E diagram, to satisfy the above condition EF must be at the middle of the
band gap. i.e. the Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor is at the middle of the band gap and
is called the intrinsic level.

Fig. 1.28 Relative plot of Fenni-Dirac Fig. 1.29 Energy band diagram
distribution function and energy along with f(E) for n-type
band diagram of intrinsic semiconductor semiconductor

For an n-type semiconductor probability of occupancy in the conduction band is much

greater than the probability of vacancy in the valence band. i.e., f(EC) >> 1 - f(EV). To satisfy
this condition EF must be above the middle of the band gap as shown in Fig. 1.29. As doping
increases EF moves towards EC.
Similarly for a p-type semiconductor, probability of vacancy in valence band is much greater
than probability of occupancy in the conduction band at room temperature. The shape of f(E) vs
E diagram remains, unchanged for a given temperature. It changes only with change in
temperature. Therefore, Fermi level must be closer to EV compared to EC as shown in Fig. 1.30.
In short, position of Fermi level is an indication of carrier concentrations in a semiconductor.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 37

Fig. 1.30 Energy band diagram along with f(E) for p-type semiconductor

Table 1.8

Type of semiconductor Position of Fermi level

1. Intrinsic semiconductor At the middle of the band gap (Ei)
2. n-type semiconductor Above Ei
EF moves up towards EC with increase
in electron concentration.
3. p-type semiconductor Below Ei
EF moves down towards with increase
in hole concentration.

1.8.2. Electron and Hole Concentration at Equilibrium

The Fermi-Dirac distribution function can be used to evaluate electron and hole concentrations
in a semiconductor. The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is given by


no = 
EC
f ( E ) N ( E )dE (1.38)

where N(E)dE represents the density of states in the energy range dE. The number of electrons
per unit volume in the energy range dE is the product of density of states N(E)dE and
probability of occupancy f(E). Thus, the total electron concentration in the conduction band (n o)
is the integral of product of density of states and probability of occupancy over the entire
conduction band as given by equation (1.38).
N(E) can be evaluated using quantum mechanics and Pauli's exclusion principle. It can be
1
shown that N(E)  E 2 i.e., density of states in conduction band increases with increase in
38 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

electron energy. But f(E) decreases exponentially with increase in energy and becomes
extremely small at large energies, i.e., f(E)N(E) decrease rapidly above EC and very few
electrons occupy far above EC. Therefore, most of the electrons occupy the lowest available
energy levels in the conduction band. 1 - f(EV) is the probability of vacancy (probability of
ccupancy of hole) at EV . 1 - f(E) decrease rapidly below EV i.e., holes occupy top most
available states in the valence band.

po =  [1 − f ( E )] N ( E )dE (1.39)
EV

Fig.1.31 makes a graphical estimate of carrier concentrations in intrinsic semiconductor.

Fig. 1.31 Graphical evaluation of carrier concentrations (intrinsic semiconductor)

(a) Energy band diagram (b) Variation of density of states with energy (c) Fermi-Dirac
distribution function (d) Carrier concentrations

Area under f(E) N(E) in the conduction band is a measure of electron concentration. Similarly,
area under N(E)[l - f(E)] in the valence band is a measure of hole concentration a the valence
band. For intrinsic semiconductor, these quantities are equal as is evident from Fig. 1.31.
For n-type semiconductor, N(E) f(E) in the conduction band has a larger area than NV[1-f(E)]
in the valence band i.e., n0 >> p0 (Fig. 1.33). Similarly, for a p-type semiconductor N(E)f(E) in
the conduction band is much less than N(E)[1 - f(E)] in the valence band. s0 p0 >> n0.
(Fig. 1.32)
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 39

Fig. 1.32 Graphical evaluation of carrier concentrations in a p-type semiconductor

Fig. 1.33 Graphical evaluation of carrier concentration in a n-type semiconductor

The electron concentration in the conduction band can be obtained by representing the
distributed electron states in the conduction band by an effective density of states (NC) located
at the conduction band edge EC. The effective density of states in the conduction band (NC) is
given by
40 Semiconductor Materials and Physics
3

 2 mn* kT  2
NC = 2   (1.40)
 h 
2

In terms of effective density of states (NC), the electron concentration in the conduction band is
given as

n0 = NC f(EC) (1.41)

i.e., the electron concentration in the conduction band equals the product of effective density of
states at EC. and the probability of occupancy at EC.

1
f(EC) = ( EC − EF )/ kT
(1.42)
1+ e

if EC - EF >> kT, i.e., if electron concentration is not very high, the above equation reduces to

1
f(EC) = ( EC − EF )/ kT
= e− ( EC − EF )/ kT (1.43)
e

i.e., for lightly doped semiconductor, Fermi-Dirac distribution function decays to Maxwell-
Boltzmann distribution function

 n0 = NCf(EC) = NC e− ( EC − EF )/ kT (1.44)

Similarly, the concentration of holes in the valence band is given by

p0 = NV[1 - f (EV)] (1.45)

3
 2 m*p kT  2
where NV = 2   (1.46)
 h2
 
is the effective density of states in the valence band.
1 - f(EV) is the probability of vacancy in the valence band.
1
1 - f (EV) = 1 − ( EV − EF )/ kT
1+ e
e( EV − EF )/ kT
=
1 + e( EV − EF )/ kT
if EF - EV >> kT, i.e., if hole concentration is not very high

l - f(EV) = e( EV − EF )/ kT = e−( EF − EV )/ kT (1.47)

Substituting equation (1.47) in equation (1.45)

p0 = NV e−( EF − EV )/ kT (1.48)
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 41
For intrinsic semiconductor, equations (1.44) and (1.48) can be modified to
n0 =ni = NC e− ( EC − Ei )/ kT ( EF = Ei) (1.49)
p0 =ni = NV e− ( Ei − EV )/ kT (1.50)
where Ei represent the Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor.
 by equations (1.49) and (1.50) for intrinsic semiconductor, at temperature T,
n0p0 = ni2 = NCNV e−( EC − EV )/ kT
− Eg / kT
= NCNV e (1.51)

From equations (1.44) and (1.48), for a semiconductor with any temperature T,
n0p0 = NCNV e−( EC − EV )/ kT
= NCNV e− E / kT g
(1.52)

From equations (1.51) and (1.52), n0p0 = ni2 for any semiconductor under thermal
equilibrium. This relation is called mass action law.
Mass action law states that at a given temperature, the product of equilibrium electron and
hole concentrations in a semiconductor is a constant for any doping and is equal to the square of
the intrinsic carrier concentration at that temperature.
Substituting value of NC in terms of ni, from equations (1.50) in (1.45), we get
− Ei / kT
n0 = ni eE F
(1.53)

and substituting value of NV in terms of n, from equation (1.50) in equation (1.48), we get

p0 = ni eE − E
i F / kT
(1.54)

Equations (1.53) and (1.54) relate Fermi level position and carrier concentrations in a
semiconductor. These equations are valid for semiconductors with low doping (EC -EF >> kT
and EF - EV >> kT). Under low doping, Fermi-Dirac statistics may be replaced by Maxwell-
Boltzmann statistics. Physically, this means that under low doping number of mobile charge
carriers in the bands are so small that only a small fraction of available states are occupied. This
is known as diluteness condition, because the electrons (solute) form a dilute solution in the
available energy states (solvent). A dilute electron gas is said to be non-degenerate, and the
resulting semiconductor is called non-degenerate semiconductor.

1.8.3 Temperature Dependence of Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

By equation (1.51) intrinsic carrier concentration (ni) is

− E / 2 kT
ni(T) = N C NV e g
(1.55)
Substituting values for NC and NV,
3
 2 kT  2
3
ni(T) = 2  2  ( mn* m*p ) 4 e− Eg / 2 kT (1.56)
 h 
3
= K1T 2 e− E g / 2 kT
| (1.57)
42 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

In silicon and germanium, the band gap decreases monotonically with increases in
temperature and can be expressed as

Eg(T) = Eg − b1T
0
(1.58)

where, Eg is the interpolated value of band gap at 0 K

0

b1 is the rate of decrease of band gap with increase in temperature.

Using equation (1.58), ni(T) becomes
3
− Eg0 / 2 kT
ni(T) = K 2T 2 e (1.59)
b1 / 2 k
where K2 = K1e (1.60)
3
− E g0 / 2 kT
i.e., ni  T and ni  e
2

The exponential dependence is stronger than the other one and the intrinsic carrier
concentration increases exponentially with increase in temperature.

1.34 Approximate plot of variation of intrinsic carrier concentration with temperature for
GaAs, Si and Ge
An approximate plot of intrinsic carrier concentration, as a function of temperature, is given
in Fig. 1.34 for GaAs, Si and Ge. It can be shown that the intrinsic carrier concentration is
minimum for GaAs and maximum for Ge at a given temperature. This is because of the wider
band gap of GaAs and lower band gap of Ge.
Following empirical relationships are valid for temperature above 50 K.
3 −4550
2
ni(T) = 1.76  l0 T e 16 T
cm −3 for Ge (1.61)
3 −7000

ni(T) = 3.88  l016 T e

2 T
cm −3 for Si (1.62)

[Note: Conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor also varies with temperature in a similar

manner.]
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 43
1.8.4 Temperature Dependence of Majority Carrier Concentration in Extrinsic Semiconductor

Consider an n-type semiconductor with doping concentration ND = 1015 cm-3. At 0 K, the carrier
concentrations are zero as there is no band to band generation or extrinsic generation.

Fig. 1.35 Variation of majority carrier concentration in a doped semiconductor (n-type

semiconductor with ND = 1015 cm-3)

As temperature increases, electrons in the donor level get excited to the conduction band
(extrinsic generation). For this process small energy is sufficient. As a result the free electron
concentration increases with increase in temperature at lower range of temperature. The electron
concentration in this region is given by n0 = ni + N D+  ND; i.e., electron concentration equals
ionized donor concentration, as the intrinsic carrier concentration (ni) is negligible at these
temperatures.
At temperature of around 150 K all the impurities are ionized, so that the electron
concentration in the conduction band become equal to the donor concentration (n0(T) = ni(T) +
N D+  ND; point A in Fig. 1.35) as intrinsic carrier concentration at this temperature is negligibly
small (ni(T) << ND).
As temperature increases further, the electron concentration remains almost unchanged at
ND, until the band to band generation (ni,(T)) become comparable to the impurity ionisation
( ND ) .
At a particular temperature the band to band generation [ni,(T)] become comparable to the
impurity ionisation (point B in Fig. 1.35).

 n0(T) = ni(T) + ND

After this temperature, majority carrier concentration increases with increase in temperature.
In this region, as band to band generation exceeds impurity ionisation, minority carrier
concentration has a value comparable to majority carrier concentration (no = ni + ND  ni) and po
 ni . The temperature dependence of no is shown in Fig. 1.35. It consists of three regions:
1. Ionization region: In this region the majority carrier concentration increases with
increase in temperature due to ionisation of impurities.
2. Extrinsic region: In this region majority carrier concentration remains constant and
minority carrier concentration is negligible. The majority carrier concentration and the
44 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

conductivity of the semiconductor is almost' independent of temperature in this legion.

A device can be operated satisfactorily, only in this range of temperature. This shows
that the doping process makes the conductivity of a semiconductor almost independent
of temperature, over a wide range of temperature. The wider the band gap (or lower n i)
of a semiconductor, the higher will be the extrinsic limit of temperature. For extrinsic
behaviour, majority carrier concentration must be atleast 5 ni.
3. Intrinsic region: At higher values of temperature the intrinsic carrier concentration
become comparable to or greater than the doping concentration. Therefore, in this
region, majority as well as minority carrier concentration increases with increase in
temperature and the semiconductor behaves like an intrinsic semiconductor.
Example 1.6 A semiconductor device requires n-type material. It is to be operated at 455 K.
Silicon doped with 5  1015 As atoms/cm3 and Ge doped with 5  1015 Sb atoms/cm3 are
available. Which one of these materials can be used for fabricating the device?

Solution
For extrinsic behaviour n0 > 5ni
3
At 455 K, ni for Sini = 3.88  l016 T 2 . e-7000/T
= 7.84  1013 cm-3
5ni = 3.92  1014 cm-3
no > 5ni
Therefore, silicon doped with 5  1015 Arsenic atoms/cm3 can be used for fabricating the
device.
3
ni = 1.76  1016 T 2 . e-4500/T
At 455 K, ni for Ge
= 7.755  1015 cm-3
5ni = 3.878  1016 cm-3
n0  5ni
Therefore, Germanium doped with 5  1015 Antimony atoms/cm3 cannot be used as n-type
material at 455 K.

1.8.5 Equilibrium Electron Hole Concentrations and Charge Neutrality

Consider a homogeneous non-degenerate semiconductor with uniform doping of ND donors/cm3

and NA acceptors/cm3. Under thermal equilibrium the semiconductor as a whole remains
neutral, i.e., total positive charge = total negative charge.
po+ N D+ = n0 + N A− (1.63a)
or no- po = N D+ - N A− (1.63b)
+
where N D represents ionized donor concentration.
N A− represents ionized acceptor concentration.
Equation (1.63) is called charge neutrality equation. Above 150 K almost all the impurities
get ionized in a non-degenerate semiconductor, so that
N D+ = ND and N A− = NA
Therefore, equation (1.63b) becomes
no- po = ND - NA (1.64)
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 45
We also have the equation,

nopo = n12 (1.65)

Equations (1.64) and (1.65) can be solved to get carrier concentrations (no and po) in a
semiconductor under thermal equilibrium.
If a semiconductor is doped with both donors and acceptors, the net doping is equal to the
difference between the two. i.e., if NA > ND, the resulting semiconductor is n-type and if NA >
ND, the resulting semiconductor is p-type.
If net doping is much greater than ni, the majority carrier concentration equals net doping. If
net doping is comparable to ni, solve equations (1.64) and (1.65) for majority carrier
concentrations. In both cases, the minority carrier concentration is evaluated from the
expression nopo = ni2 Examples 1.7 to 1.9 illustrate the procedure of determining carrier
concentrations.

Example 1.7 A silicon sample is doped with 5  1016 As atoms/cm3 and 2  1016 B atoms/cm3.
Determine a. electron and hole concentrations at room temperature b. the position of Fermi
level. Assume n. for silicon at room temperature as 1.5  1010 cm-3.

(a) ND = 5 × l016cm-3, NA = 2 × 1016 cm-3

Net doping = ND - NA
= 5 × 1016 - 2 × 1016
= 3 × 1016 cm-3
ND > NA  Semiconductor is n-type
Net doping ND - NA >> ni.
Therefore, majority carrier concentration  net doping
i.e., no = ND - NA = 3 × 1016 cm-3
ni2 2.25  1020
po = =
n0 3  1016
= 7.5 × 103 cm-3

_______________EC
_______________EF
0.377eV i
_______________E
_______________EV
Fig. Ex.1.7
− Ei / kT
(b) n o = ni e E F

n0
= e( EF − Ei )/ kT
ni
( EF − Ei ) n
= ln 0
kT ni
46 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Taking natural logarithm,

n0
EF - Ei = kTln
ni
kT = 26 meV at room temperature
3  1016
EF - Ei = 0.026  ln
1.5 1010
= 0.377 eV.

The Fermi level position is shown in Fig. Ex.1.7.

Example 1.8 A Ge sample is doped with 1017 Boron atoms per cm3. Determine the carrier
concentrations and Fermi level position at room temperature. ni for Ge = 2.5 × 1013 cm-3 at
room temperature.

Solution
NA = 1017 cm-3
ni = 2.5 × 1013 cm-3, NA >> ni
Therefore, majority carrier concentration = doping concentration.
i.e., p0 = NA = 1017 cm-3 and
ni2
no =
p0
(2.5  1013 ) 2
= = 6.25 × 109 cm-3
1017
− Ei / kT
p 0 = ni e E F

p0
Ei − EF = kT ln
ni
1017
= 0.026  ln
2.5 1013
= 0.2156 eV.

Example 1.9 A Ge sample is doped with 5 x 1013 Arsenic atoms/cm3. Determine, the carrier
concentration and Fermi level position at 300 K. (ni for Ge at 300 K = 2.5 × 1013 cm-3).

Solution
ND = 5 × 1013 cm-3
ND  ni
In this case, doping concentration is comparable to intrinsic carrier concentration. Therefore,
it is required to solve the charge neutrality equation to find out majority carrier concentration.

ND + p0 = n0
ni2
ND + = n0
n0
n02 − n0 N D − ni2 = 0
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 47

N D  N D2 + 4ni2
n0 =
2
5 10  (5 1013 ) 2 + 4  (2.5 1013 ) 2
13
=
2
5 10  7.07 10
13 13
=
2
= 6.035 × 1013 cm-3
(Negative answer is invalid)

ni2
p0 =
n0
(2.5  1013 ) 2
=
6.035  1013
= 1.035× 1013 cm-3

To find Fermi level position

− Ei / kT
n0 = ni eE F

n0
EF − Ei = kT ln
ni
6.035 1013
= 0.026 ln
2.5 1013
= 0.023 eV.
1.9 CARRIER TRANSPORT IN SEMICONDUCTORS-MOBILITY AND
CONDUCTIVITY
Carrier transport in semiconductors is mainly by two different mechanisms; drift and diffusion.
Drift current results from the movement of electrons (holes) under an electric field similar to the
current flow in a metal. Diffusive motion is due to gradients in carrier concentrations.

Drift carriers in an electric field: The charge carriers in a solid are in random thermal motion
under thermal equilibrium. (The mean thermal velocity of electron is given by vth = 3mkT . For *
n

7
silicon at 300 K, vth = 2.3 × 10 cm/s).
At room temperature the thermal motion of an electron may be visualised as random
scattering from lattice atoms, impurities, other electrons, defects etc. Since the scattering is
random, there is no net motion along any direction for a group of n electrons/cm 3 in a given
time. This is not true for an individual electron as shown in Fig. 1.36.
If an electric field is applied in the x-direction (x), each electron experiences a force -qx
from the field. Thus, the group of electrons will have a net average velocity in the x-direction.
This mean velocity is called drift velocity. If P is the total momentum of the group of n
electrons/cm3 the accelerating force due to electric field is
dPx
= −nqEx (1.66)
dt field
48 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Even though this equation shows a continuous acceleration in the x-direction, this force due
to electric field is balanced by the decelerating force due to the collision process, under steady
state condition.

Fig. 1.36 Thermal motion of electron in solid

To evaluate the change in momentum due to collisions, we must investigate the collision
probabilities, which will be constant if the collision is purely random.
Let us consider a group of N0 electrons at time t = 0. Let N(t) be the number of electrons
unscattered (have not undergone collision) by time t. The rate of decrease N(t) at any time t is
proportional to N(t).
−dN (t )
 N(t)
dt
−dN (t ) N (t )
or = (1.67)
dt t

Solution to this equation is

N(t) = N 0 e−t / t (1.68)

t is the mean time between collisions or mean free time.

The probability of collision for an electron in any time interval dt is dt / t . Therefore, the
differential change in momentum due to collisions is
dt
-dPx = Px.
t
dPx − Px
or = (1.69)
dt collision t
At steady-state, sum of accelerating and decelerating effects must be zero. i.e., from
equations (1.66) and (1.69),

− Px
-nqx = 0 (1.70a)
t
P
<Px> = x = -q t x (1.70b)
n
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 49
This indicates that the electrons have constant average velocity in the negative x- direction
given by
 Px  − qt Ex
<vx> = = (1.71)
mn* mn*
This represents the net drift velocity of an average electron in response to the electric field.
Usually, this velocity is much less than mean thermal velocity (vth).
The current density due to electron drift is the number of electrons crossing unit area per unit
time (n<vx>) multiplied by the charge of an electron (q), which can be verified dimensionally as

Jn drift = -q(C) n (cm-3)vx (cm s-1)

= -qn(vx)C/s cm2 = -qn(vx)A/cm2
Jn drift = -qn <vx>
nq 2 t
= Ex , substituting for <vx> from 1.71 (1.72)
mn*
By Ohm's law,
Jn drift = nx
nq 2 t
n = by equation (1.72) (1.73)
mn*
The conductivity (n), can be written as
qt
n = qnn, where n = (1.74)
mn*
n is called electron mobility, which represents the ease with which an electron drift in a
material.
Mobility can also be defined as the average drift velocity per unit electric field.
−  vx 
n = cm2 /Vs (1.75a)
Ex
The current density in terms of mobility is
Jn drift = qnnx
+  vx 
Similarly p = (1.75b)
Ex
Total drift current is
Jdrift= Jn drift + Jp drift
= q(nn + pp) x = x (1.76)
where n + p = qnn + qpp (1.77)
Equation (1.74) shows that lesser the effective mass higher the mobility, i.e., lighter particles
are more mobile than heavier particles. It can also be shown that as the curvature of the band
increases mobility increases.
Generally the mobility of electrons is found to be higher than that of holes in all
semiconductors. This is due to the fact that the position of holes is close to the nucleus than that
of electrons. (Valence band where holes occupy is close to the nucleus than conduction band
where electrons occupy). The nuclear interaction is more on holes.

Derivation of Conductivity of Semiconductor

50 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

By Ohms law, the electron drift current density may be expressed as

Jn = n (1.78)
where
n is the conductivity due to electrons and
 is the electric field.
By definition of current density,
Jn = -nqvn (1.79)
where
n is the electron concentration
q is the charge of electron = 1.6 10-19C
vn is the drift velocity of electron.
The mobility of electrons is defined as
−v
n = n (1.80)
E
Substitute equation (1.80) in (1.79), we get

Jn = qnn (1.81)
From equations (1.78) and (1.81) we get
n = qnn
Similarly
p = qpp
  = n + p
= q[nn + pp]

1.9.1 Compensation

The process of adding opposite type of impurity to an already doped semiconductor is called
compensation. In a semiconductor if equal amount of opposite type of impurities are added the
resulting material become intrinsic. Such a material is called completely compensated
semiconductor. By adding opposite type of impurities an n-type semiconductor can be
converted to p-type semiconductor and vice versa. The carrier mobilities and conductivity of a
compensated semiconductor are different from those of an uncompensated semiconductor with
equal carrier concentrations.

Example 1.10 The Fermi level position in a silicon sample at 300 K is 0.29 eV below EC.
Determine the carrier concentrations and conductivity of the specimen. Given that ni = 1.5 
1010 cm-3, n = 1350 cm2/Vs, p = 480 cm2/Vs.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 51
Solution
____________________________ EC
0.29 eV 0.55 eV
____________________________
EF
0.26 eV
____________________________
Ei
Eg/2 =0.55 eV
____________________________
EV
Fig. Ex.1.10
For silicon Eg = 1.1 eV
Eg
 EF - Ei = − ( EC − EF )
2
= 0.55 - 0.29
= 0.26 eV

The specimen is n-type as the Fermi level is above Ei.

n0 = ni e( EF − Ei )/ kT
0.26
= 1.5  1010 e 0.026
= 3.30  1014 cm-3
ni2
= p0 =
n0
(1.5  1010 ) 2
= = 6.8  105 cm-3
3.30  1014
Conductivity
 = q(n0 n + pop)
 = 1.6  10-19 (3.3  1014  1350 + 6.8  105  480)
= 0.071 ( cm)-1.

Example 1.11 Show that the conductivity of a silicon sample under thermal equilibrium is
minimum when it is slightly p-type. Derive expression for minimum conductivity.

Solution
 = q(n0 n + pop) Ex.1.11
 n2 
= q  n0 n + i  p 
 n0 
For minimum conductivity,
d d 2
= 0; 0
dn0 dn02
52 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

d  ni2  p 
= q  n − 2  = 0
dn0  n0 
n02 n = ni2  p
p
n0 = ni  ni (Q  n   p ) Ex.1.11(2)
n
d 2 2qni  p
2

Also = 0
dn02 n03
Similarly, for minimum conductivity
d 0 n
= 0; p0 = ni  ni (Q  n   p ) Ex.1.11(3)
dp0 p
When conductivity is minimum, n0 < ni and p0 > ni which implies that silicon sample is p-type
when conductivity is minimum. Substituting n0 and p0 from equation (Ex. 1.11(2)) and (Ex.
1.11(3)) into equation (Ex. 1.11(1)) gives the expression for minimum conductivity (min) as
p n
min = qni  n + qni p
n p
= 2qni n  p
Example 1.12 Estimate the ratio of minimum conductivity to intrinsic conductivity of silicon
at 300K.
Solution
n = 1350 cm2/Vs, p = 480 cm2 / Vs
min = 2qni n  p
= 2  1.6  10-19  1.5  1010  1350  480
= 3.86  l0-6 ( cm)-1
i = qni ( n +  p )
= 1.6  10-19  1.5  l010 (1350 + 480)
= 4.39  10-6 ( cm)-1
 min 3.86 10−6
= = 0.88 .
i 4.39 10−6

1.9.2 Thermal relaxation time

When an electric field is applied to a semiconductor, the charge carriers will acquire a net mean
velocity whose direction depends on the type of carriers and direction of electric field. If the
electric field is removed it will take some time for the electrons to acquire thermal equilibrium
condition under which the mean velocity is zero. The time required to attain equilibrium after
the removal of electric field is called thermal relaxation time ( t ). The velocity decays
exponentially with time on removal of electric field as follows.

v(t) = v0e-t/ t (1.82)

 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 53
Thermal relaxation time is also equal to the time taken by the charge carriers to attain steady-
state after applying electric field.

Example 1.13 Determine, the mean free time for electron and hole in intrinsic silicon.
m0 = 9.11  10-28 g, q = 1.6  10-19 C
n = 1350cm2/Vs, p = 480 cm2/Vs
*
mn = 0.26 m0, m*p = 0.38 m0
mn* n
tn =
q
0.26  9.1110−28 1350
= = 1.99 s
1.6 10−19
mn*  p
tp =
q
0.38  9.1110−28  480
= = 1.038 s
1.6  10−19

1.9.3 Scattering Mechanisms

The different scattering mechanisms limit the mobility of charge carriers in a semiconductor.
The important scattering mechanisms are
1. Lattice scattering
2. Ionized impurity scattering
3. Neutral impurity scattering and
4. Carrier carrier scattering
Lattice scattering: This is the scattering mechanism due to vibration of lattice. As temperature
increases the lattice vibrates at a faster rate (with increased energy). Therefore, scattering of
carriers with lattice vibration increases with increase in temperature. Mobility decreases with
−3
rise in temperature such that L  T 2 .
Ionized impurity scattering: Ionized impurity scattering is the scattering of charge carriers
with ionized impurities. Usually ionized impurities are dopants in a semiconductor. This is a
dominant mode of scattering in doped semiconductors. This type of scattering increases with
increase in doping and decrease in temperature. Mobility due to this type of scattering ( I ) is
3
proportional to T 2 .
Neutral impurity scattering: The size of a neutral impurity atom is different from that of a
host lattice atom and this difference cause strain in the lattice. This strain produces a bump in
the potential near the neutral impurity atom, and the electric field produces scatters a carrier
close enough to this impurity. This is negligible because the number of neutral impurities is very
small.
Carrier carrier scattering: In semiconductors holes and electrons may deflect each other
during their movement through the crystal. This scattering is negligible in extrinsic
semiconductor because the minority carriers are in short supply. Collision between same type of
carriers is unimportant because there is only an exchange of momentum for carrier moving in
the same direction.
54 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

1.9.4 Variation of Mobility with Temperature

Mobility of charge carriers is decided by the scattering or collision mechanisms. As the

scattering increases, mobility decreases. Lattice scattering increases with increase in
temperature as the thermal agitation of lattice increases. Therefore, mobility due to lattice
scattering decreases with increase in temperature (  L T −23 ) .
At lower temperature, the thermal motion of carriers is slower. Slowly moving carrier is
scattered more strongly by interaction with a charged ion, compared to carriers with greater
momentum. Therefore, mobility due to ionized impurity scattering decreases with decrease in
temperature (  L T 32 ) .
The variation of mobility with temperature is shown in Fig. 1.37. The effective mobility due
to different scattering mechanisms is given by
µ(cm2/Vs) (log scale)

µIT3/2 µLT-3/2

Impurity scattering Lattice scattering

T(K) (log scale)

Fig. 1.37 Variation of mobility with temperature

1 1 1
= + + ... (1.83)
 I L
where  is the effective mobility.
I is mobility due to ionized impurity scattering.
L is mobility due to lattice scattering.
Therefore, mechanism with lowest mobility will dominate at a given temperature.

1.9.5 Variation of Mobility with Doping

As the concentration of impurities increases (increase in doping), due to increased ionized

impurity scattering, mobility decreases. An approximate plot of mobility as a function of doping
on log scale is given in Fig. 1.38.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 55

Fig. 1.38 Variation of Mobility with Doping

Doping dependant mobilities in Si at 300 K is given by emperical formulae

1252
n = 88 + cm2 / Vs
1 + 0.698 10−17 N
407
p = 54.3 + −17
cm2 / Vs
1 + 0.374 10 N
where N represents doping concentration in cm-3.

1.10 CONSTANCY Of FCRMI LEVEL AT EQUILIBRIUM

Assume that a contact be made between two materials as shown in Fig. 1.39.

E
Material 1 Material 2
Density of states N1(E) N2(E)
Probability of occupancy f1(E) f2(E)
Fermi level EF1 EF2

Fig. 1.39 Two materials in contact at equilibrium

Consider a small energy interval E around an absolute value of energy E that is identical in
the two materials. Assume that both materials have partially filled states around E. Therefore,
electrons are able to move from material 1 to 2 without expenditure of any energy.
Number of electrons moving from material 1 to material 2 in energy range E is propotional
to total number of filled states in material 1 and total number of vacant states in material 2 in
E. i.e., electrons moving from material 1 to 2

 [N1(E). f1(E) E] [N2(E)[l - f2(E)] E] (1.84a)

56 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Similarly, electrons moving from material 2 to 1

 [N2(E). f2(E) E] [N1(E)[l - f1(E)] E] (1.84b)

By principle of detailed balance, for any system at thermal equilibrium, the rate of physical
process in a given energy interval must be balanced by its inverse process occurring in the same
energy interval. Therefore, the transfer of electrons from material 1 to 2 must be balanced by the
transfer of electrons from material 2 to 1. Thus from equations (l.84a) and (1.84b), we get

[N1(E) f1(E). E] [N2(E)[l - f2(E)] E]

= [N2(E) f2(E) E] [N1(E)[l - f1(E)] E]

i.e., N1(E) f1(E) N2(E)[l - f2(E)]

= N2(E) f2(E) N1(E)[l - f1(E)]
f1(E) [l - f2(E)] = f2(E) [l - f1(E)]
i.e., f1(E) = f2(E)
1 1
i.e., ( E − EF1 )/ kT
= ( E − EF2 )/ kT
1+ e 1+ e

which is true only if EF = EF . i.e., the gradient in Fermi level (c-^) is zero at thermal
1 2

equilibrium.

1.11 HALL EFFECT

When electric and magnetic fields are applied simultaneously in perpendicular directions to a
semiconductor specimen, an electric field develops in a direction mutually perpendicular to the
applied magnetic and electric fields. This phenomenon is known as Hall effect.
Consider a p-type semiconductor bar of length L, thickness t and width w as shown in Fig.
1.40. Let Bz be the applied magnetic field along the z direction and Ix be the current along the x-
direction due to the applied electric field. The net force experienced by a hole due to the
combined electric and magnetic fields is given by

F = q ( + v × B) (1.85a)
i j k
where v  B = vx vy vz (1.85b)
Bx By Bz

It may be noticed that

Bx = By = 0 and vy = vz = 0

The net force experienced by a hole along the y direction is the sum of the forces due to
electric field and magnetic field along the y direction.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 57
Force due electric field along the y-direction = qy
Force due magnetic field along the y-direction = q × y component of u × B

= q[-vx Bz - Bz vz]
= q(-vx Bz) , Since vz = 0

Therefore the net force experienced by the hole along the y direction due to the combined
electric and magnetic fields becomes

Fy = q(y - vx Bz) (1.86)

z Bz

C(+)
y

y

Ix w

x
Fig. 1.40 Hall Effect

Equation 1.86 shows that unless an electric field is established along the y-direct the hole
will experience a net force and acceleration in the y-direction due to vxBz product.
To maintain steady-state condition, y must just balance the product vxBz (y = vxBz), so that
the net force Fy = 0. Physically, this electric field is set up when the holes are shifted slightly in
the negative y-direction (towards side A in the figure) due to magnetic field. As the force due to
this field balances the force due to magnetic field, the lateral force on the holes becomes zero, as
they drift along the bar. The establishment of electric field y is known as Hall Effect and the
resulting voltage VAB = y w is called Hall voltage.
Jx
vx = ( Q Jp(x) = qp0vx)
qp0
J x Bz
 y = = RH J x Bz (1.87)
qp0
58 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

i.e., the Hall field is proportional to the product of current density and magnetic flux density.
 1 
The proportionality constant  RH =  is called Hall coefficient.
 qp0 
From Eqn 1.87
 Ix 
J x Bz   Bz I x Bz
p0 = =  wt 
= (1.88)
q y V 
q  AB 
 w 
qtVAB
Since, all the quantities in equation (1.88) are measurable the majority carrier concentration
can be measured using Hall Effect.
If a measurement of sample resistance R is made, the sample resistivity  can be calculated.
RA
=
L
Rwt VCD / I x
= = (1.89)
L L / wt
For a p-type semiconductor,  = qpo
 R 1
Therefore mobility, p = = H = (1.90)
qp0  qpo 
VAB L
= (by eqns 1.88 and 1.89)
VCD Bz w
Hall Effect can be used for:
1. measurement of majority carrier concentration,
2. measurement of majority carrier mobility and,
3. to determine the type of unknown semiconductor sample (n or p).

Example 1.14 With reference to Fig. 1.40, the following data are given: Bz = 6 kG, Ix = 1mA,
w = 0.2 mm, t = 100 m, L = 4 mm, VAB = -2 mV, VCD = 500 mV. Find the type of
semiconductor, majority carrier concentration and its mobility.

Solution
VAB negative, therefore the semiconductor is n-type.
I x Bz
n0 =
qtVAB
Bz = 6 kG = 6  10-5 Wb/cm2
110−3  6 10−5
 n0 =
1.6 10−19 100 10−4  2 10−3
= 1.875  1016 cm-3
VCD / I x VCD wt
 = =
L / wt IxL
500 10−3  0.02  100  10−4
=
110−3  0.40
= 0.25 cm
 1
n = =
qn0 qno 
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 59
1
=
1.6 10−19 1.875 1016  0.25
= 1333 cm2/Vs.

1.12 HIGH FIELD EFFECTS

The relation vd = n is valid only for low values of electric fields. As the electric field is
increased the drift velocity reaches an upper limit. This limit occurs near the mean thermal
velocity (~ 107 cm/s at 300 K for Si). After that the energy from the field is transfered to the
lattice rather than increasing the carrier velocity. The result of the scattering limited velocity is
fairly constant at high fields as shown in fig 1.41. Due to velocity saturation, mobility decrease
with increase in electric field at high electric fields   =
vs 
 . This behaviour is typical of Si, Ge etc.
 E

Fig. 1.41 Electron drift velocity vs electric filed for silicon

But for GaAs there is a region of negative resistance due to the transfer of electrons from a
higher curvature band to a lower curvature band. As the electric field increases electrons from 
band where mobility is high are transferred to L band where the electron mobility is low (see
Fig. 1.18). During the transfer, drift velocity decreases due to reduced mobility. Once all the
electrons are transferred to lower mobility band, drift velocity reaches its minimum. After that
the velocity again increases with electric field and saturates at high electric field to mean
thermal velocity as shown in Fig. 1.42.

Fig. 1.42 Variation of electron drift velocity with electric field for GaAs
60 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Example 1.15 What is the average time taken by an electron to drift 1 m in pure silicon at an
electric field of a. 100 V/cm b. 105 V/cm? n = 1350 cm2 /Vs, p = 480 cm2/Vs at room
temperature.

Solution
a. vd = n
= 1350  100 = 1.35  105 cm/s
L 1 10−4
t = = = 0.74ns
vd 1.35  105
b. vd = n
= 1350  105 = 1.35  108 cm/s > vs (saturation velocity)
L 1  10−4
 t = = = 10−11 s.
vs 107

1.13 EXCESS CARRIERS IN SEMICONDUCTORS

Charge carriers in semiconductors which are in excess of their thermal equilibrium value are
called excess carriers. Excess carriers can be generated by optical excitation, electron
bombardment, injection across a p-n junction etc.

1.13.1 Photo Generation

This is the process of generating charge carriers (excess) by shining light on the semiconductor.
If a photon of energy greater than the band gap of semiconductor falls on it, the energy of
photon is absorbed by an electron in the valence band, and is excited to the conduction band.
This results in the generation of an EHP. i.e., optically generated electron and hole
concentrations are equal. These carrier concentrations are in excess of the thermal equilibrium
value.
i.e., n = no + n
p = po+ p
n = p
where, n is the total electron concentration
p is the total hole concentration
no is the equilibrium electron concentration
po is the equilibrium hole concentration
n is the excess electron concentration
p is the excess hole concentration
If light of intensity Io falls on one face of a semiconductor sample of thickness t as shown in
Fig. 1.43, the amount of light transmitted through it is given by

I(t) = Io e-t (1.91)

where  is the absorption coefficient.

 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 61

Fig. 1.43 Absorption and transmission of light through a semiconductor specimen of

thickness t

The absorption coefficient of a material depends on the incident wave length or energy
( E = hc ) . The absorption coefficient as a function of incident photon energy is shown in
Fig. 1.44.

Eg

Fig. 1.44 Absorption coefficient as a function of energy of photon

If the incident photon has energy greater than the band gap energy, the velocity of the excited
electron will be higher than the mean thermal velocity. The excess energy of electron is released
to the lattice as heat during scattering events until its velocity becomes the thermal velocity at
that temperature. Photogeneration and recombination process are illustrated in Fig. 1.45.
Photo conductivity: The conductivity due to the photogenerated carriers is called photo
conductivity.
op = qnopn + qpopp
= qnn + qpp (1.92)
62 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Fig. 1.45 Photo excitation and radiative recombination

o
Example 1.16 A 100 mW laser beam with wave length  = 6328 A is focussed onto a GaAs
sample 100 m thick. The absorption coefficient at this wave length is 3  104 cm-1.Find the
number of photons emitted per second by radiative recombination in the GaAs specimen,
assuming perfect quantum efficiency; what power is delivered to the sample as heat?

Solution
Transmitted power, Pt = Ioe-t
Po = 100 mW = 100  10-3 W
 = 3  104 cm-1 = 3  106 m-1
t = 100 m = 100  10-6 m
Pt = 100  10-3  e(-310610010-6)
 0
Absorbed power = Incident power - transmitted power
= 100 mW
Band gap of GaAs = 1.43eV
hc
Energy of incident photon E =

1.24
=
 (in m)
1.24
E = = 1.96 eV
0.6328
Energy of emitted photon is equal to the band gap of GaAs. The difference between energies
of absorbed and emitted photons will be released to the lattice as heat.
Therefore, the amount of power converted to heat
1.96 − 1.43
=  100 10-3 W
1.96
= 27 mW
Power of emitted photon = 100 - 27
= 73 mW
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 63
power of emitted photons
Number of emitted photons =
energy of emitted photons
73  10−3
=
1.43  1.6 10−19
= 3.19  1017.

1.13.2 Low-level and High Level Injections

When the injected excess carrier concentration is small compared to the equilibrium majority
carrier concentration, the injection of excess carriers is called low level injection. [i.e., n, p <<
po for n-type semiconductors and n, p << po for p-type semiconductors]. In low level injection,
the majority carrier concentration remains almost unchanged.
When the injected excess carrier concentration is comparable to or greater than the
equilibrium majority carrier concentration, the injection is called high level injection. In high
level injection, the majority carrier concentration also changes significantly. One tenth of
equilibrium majority carrier concentration is usually considered as the boundary between low
level and high level injection.

1.13.3 Excess Carrier Lifetime (Transient Decay of Excess EHP) - Direct Recombination

In direct recombination, electron from the conduction band directly falls into a vacant state
(hole) in the valence band and the difference in energy is released as a photon. The probability
of recombining a hole and electron is constant at any time. Thus, the decay of excess carriers
will have an exponential form.
The rate of decay at any time t is proportional to the product of number of electrons and
number of holes remaining at time t. Therefore, the net rate of change of conduction band
electron concentration 
dn(t ) 
 equals thermal generation rate ( r ni ) minus the recombination
2

 dt 
rate (rnp).
−dn(t )
=  r n(t ) p(t ) −  r ni2 (1.93)
dt
Assume that excess EHP is created at t = 0 by a flash of light and let the initial excess
electron and hole concentrations be n and p respectively. Also, n =p. As electrons and
holes recombine in pairs, the instantaneous values of carrier concentrations n(t) and p(t) are
also equal.
 n(t) = no + n(t)
p(t) = po + p(t)
and equation (1.93) becomes
−d  dn 
 n(t ) =  r n0 +  n(t )[ p0 +  p(t )] −  r ni2 Q 0 = 0 
dt  dt 
=  r  n0 p0 +  n(t )( p0 + n0 ) +  2 n(t )  −  r ni2 Q  p(t ) =  n(t )

=  r (n0 + p0 ) n(t ) +  2 n(t )  (  r n0 p0 =  r ni2 ) (1.94)

For low-level injection 2n(t) is negligible compared to other terms.
64 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

For p-type semiconductor,

n0 + p0  p0
−d
  n(t ) =  r p0 n(t )
dt
Solution to this equation is
n(t) = n e− p t = ne−t /T
r 0 n
(1.95a)
where n =(rp0) is called recombination lifetime. n is also called minority carrier lifetime. n
-1

is the excess carrier concentration at t = 0.

p(t)

p p e − t / p

po

Fig. 1.46 Exponential decay of excess holes in a p-type semiconductor

Similarly, the decay of excess holes in n-type semiconductor is given by

p(t) = p e − p t = pe − t /
r 0 p
(1.95b)
where p = (rn0) and p is p at t = 0.
-1

In the case of direct recombination, the excess majority carriers decay at the same rate as the
minority carriers.

1.13.4 Steady-State Carrier Generation

Under thermal equilibrium, the generation rate is balanced by recombination rate, so that
equilibrium values of no and po are maintained
g(T) =  r ni2 = r n0po
Consider a steady-state optical generation rate gop, added to thermal equilibrium. Now, the
carrier concentration will increase to new steady-state values. Balance between generation and
recombination is maintained under steady-state conditions.

i.e., g(T) + gop = r np

=r (n0 + n) (po + p)

For direct recombination with no trapping, n = p

 g(T) +gop = r n0po + r [(n0 + po)n + 2n]
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 65
r n0po = g(T) and 2n term can be neglected for low-level injection.
n
 gop =  (no + p0 ) n = (1.96a)
r
n
1
where n =
 r ( n0 + p0 )
 n = gopn (1.96b)
p = gopp

i.e., Excess carrier concentration = (excess carrier generation rate) x (minority carrier lifetime)

Example 1.17 A direct band gap semiconductor with ni = 1010 cm-3 is doped with 1015 cm-3
donors. Its low-level carrier lifetime n = p = 10-7 s.
a. If a sample of this material is uniformly exposed to a steady optical generation rate of gop=2 ×
1022 EHP/cm3s; Calculate the excess carrier concentration n = p. Note: This excitation rate
is not low-level, but you may assume that r is the same.
b. If the carrier lifetime () is defined as the excess carrier concentration divided by the
recombination rate, what is  at this excitation level?

Solution
ND = 1015cm-3; n0 = 1015 cm-3
ni2 1020
p0 = = = 105 cm-3
n0 1015
1
 =
 r ( n0 + p0 )
 r = 10-8 cm-3 s-1
a. gop = 2 × 1022 EHP/cm3s
n = gop n
= 2 × 1022 × 10-7 = 2 × 1015
p = n = 2 × 1015 cm-3
b. n = no + n = 1015 + 2 × 1015 = 3 × 1015
p = po + p = 105 + 2 × 1015 = 2 × 1015
n 2 1015
 = = −8
 r np 10  3 1015  2 1015
= 3.33 × 10-8 s.
1.13.5 Quasi Fermi Levels

The mass action law nopo = ni2 is not applicable in the presence of excess carriers. Under thermal
equilibrium, the carrier concentrations [no and po] are represented in terms of equilibrium fermi
level, EF. When excess carriers are present, the carrier concentrations cannot be represented by
the equilibrium Fermi level. Seperate fermi levels are required to express the electron and hole
concentrations and they are known as Quasi fermi levels. Electron quasi fermi level is expressed
by Fn and hole quasi fermi level by Fp. In terms of quasi fermi levels, the carrier concentrations
in the presence of excess carriers may be expressed as
66 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

n = ni e( Fn − Ei )/ kT (1.97a)
( Ei − Fp )/ kT
p = ni e and (1.97b)
2 ( Fn − Fp )/ kT
np = n e i (1.97c)
The quasi-Fermi levels illustrate the deviation from equilibrium caused by excess carriers.
When excess carriers are present, the deviations of Fn and Fp from EF indicate how far the
electron and hole population are from the equilibrium values, no and po. Example 1.18 illustrates
the effect of excess carriers on Fermi level position.

Example 1.18 A silicon sample with arsenic doping of 1016 atoms/cm3 is steadily illuminated
such that gop = 1021 EHP cm-3 s-1. If Tn = Tp = 10-6 s, calculate separation between quasi-Fermi
levels and show the positions of equilibrium and quasi-Fermi levels at 300 K.

EC _______________________
Fn _______________________
EF _______________________
0.003 eV
0.351 eV
0.639 eV
E1 _______________________
0.288 eV
Fp _______________________

EV _______________________
Fig. Ex.1.18

Take ni at 300 K as 1.5 × 1010 cm-3

ND = 1016 cm-3 >> ni
 no = ND = 1016 cm-3
n 2 (1.5  10 )
10 2

p0 = i = = 2.25 × 104 cm-3

n0 1016
n = p = gop p
= 1021 × 10-6 = 1015 cm-3
n = n0 + n
= 1016 + 1015 == 1.1 × 1016 cm-3
p = po + p = 2.25 × 104 + 1015 = 1015 cm-3
n = ni e( Fn − Ei )/ kT
n
Fn - Ei = kT ln
ni
1.11016
= 0.026 ln = 0.351eV
1.5 1010
( Ei − Fp )

p = ni e kT

p 1015
Ei - Fp = kT ln = 0.026 ln = 0.288 eV
ni 1.5 1010
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 67
At equilibrium,
n0 = ni e( EF − Ei )/ kT
n0
EF - Ei = kT ln
ni
1016
= 0.026 ln = 0.348eV
1.5 1010
Fn - Fp = Fn - Ei + Ei - Fp
= 0.351 + 0.288 = 0.639 eV.

1.13.6 Recombination Mechanisms

i. Direct band to band recombination
In direct band to band recombination an electron at conduction band minimum directly falls into
a hole at the valence band maximum, releasing the difference energy as a photon as illustrated
in Fig. 1.47. As a result an electron hole pair vanishes. This type of recombination mechanism is
seen in direct band gap semiconductors such as GaAs, InP, etc. Generation and recombination
are continuous process in a semiconductor. Lifetime is the average time for which a charge
carrier survives without recombination after it is generated.

Fig. 1.47 Optical generation and direct recombination

ii. Indirect Recombination Via Deep Energy Levels in the Band Gap
Impurity atoms other than donors and acceptors and crystal defects in a semiconductor
introduce localised energy levels deep in the band gap, away from the band edges. These levels
act as stepping stones for electrons between conduction band and valence band, 'making a
substantial enhancement in the recombination process. Depending on the location in the band
gap, this level can act as a trap or recombination center for electron or hole.
An electron trap has a high probability of capturing a conduction band electron and setting it
free after sometime. A hole trap has high probability of capturing a hole and subsequently
releasing it to the valence band.
At a recombination centre, the probability of electron and hole captures are nearly equal, thus
an electron capture is followed by a hole capture, and this results in the elimination of an EHP.
Fig. 1.48 illustrates the four steps that occur in the recombination of an EHP through a deep
level.
a) Capture of electron from conduction band by centre located at Ef.
b) Emission of an electron from the centre to the conduction band.
68 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

c) Capture of a hole from the valence band. Here, the centre emits electron to the
valence band which is equivalent to the capture of a hole.
d) Centre captures an electron from the valence band, which is equivalent to the
emission of a hole.

Fig. 1.48 Steps involved in indirect recombination via traps

For the level to act as a recombination centre, the electron capture process (a) must be
followed by the hole capture process (c) and both these processes should have nearly equal
probability. If electron capture (a) is followed by electron emission (b) this centre acts as
electron trap. If hole capture (c) is followed by a hole emission (d) the centre acts as a hole trap.

iii. Auger Recombination

Auger recombination is a three particle process in which either two electrons and one hole or
two holes and one electron are involved. This type of recombination is possible for direct band
to band recombination and also for indirect recombination involving traps.

Fig. 1.49 Auger recombination (a) the two electrons and one hole (eeh) process (b) the one
electron and two holes (ehh) process
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 69
The auger recombination process for a direct band to band recombination is illustrated in Fig
1.49. The two electrons and one hole process (eeh) is shown in Fig. 1.49(a). Hence electron 1 in
the conduction band makes a transition to empty state 1' in the valence band. The energy of
EHP is transferred to the nearby electron 2 and it is excited to 2'. The excited electron imparts
its kinetic energy to the lattice and comes back to conduction band minimum.
Auger recombination involving two holes and one electron is shown in Fig. 1.49(b)). Here,
the recombining electron 1 on transition to 2 imparts its energy to a hole at 2' which transfers to
a state 2 deep in the valence band.

iv. Trap Aided Auger Recombination

In Fig. 1.50(a) the trapped electron makes a transition to the valence band by giving its energy
to an electron in the conduction band. This process is significant only in a heavily doped n-type
semiconductor with a high concentration of traps below EF.

Fig. 1.50 Trap aided Auger recombination

Recombination involving two holes and one electron is shown in Fig. 1.50(b). Here, the
electron makes a transition to an unoccupied trap level in the band gap and gives its energy to a
hole in the valence band. This is significant in heavily doped p-type semiconductor with a large
density of traps located above Fermi level.

1.13.7 Origin of Recombination Centres

The major origin of recombination centres are impurities, imperfection due to radiation damage
and unsaturated bonds at the surface.
Impurities: Impurities which introduce levels near the middle of the band gap act, as efficient
recombination centres. Eg: Au in Si, Cu in Ge. Gold introduces an acceptor level 0.54 eV below
EC in silicon. Gold doping increases recombination rate and therefore reduces lifetime. Thus,
lifetime can be controlled by gold doping.
Radiation damage: High energy particles such as neutrons, protons, electrons and -rays can
displace atoms in a semiconductor lattice from their normal positions creating vacancies and
interstitials. The lattice defects created by them can behave like deep impurities. The lifetime (of
minority carriers) decrease with radiation doze.
Electron irradiation is a process with greater control and uniformity to control lifetime. but it
has the following disadvantage. Radiation induced recombination centres anneal out after a
period of time, even if the device is not subjected to high temperature.
Unsaturated bonds at the surface: At the surface of a semiconductor, the lattice is abruptly
terminated resulting in unsaturated bonds for the surface atoms. This irregularity introduces
70 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

large density of localised energy levels in the forbidden gap and these levels are called surface
states. Surface states with levels at the middle of the band gap act as recombination centres. The
effect of surface recombination is illustrated in Fig. 1.51.
Density of surface states on clean surface  1015 cm-2. Density of surface states on oxide
coated surface  1012 cm-2. This is because, due to presence of oxide layer, some of the bonds
get saturated. Carrier recombination at the surface is characterized by surface recombination
velocity (s).
Excess carrier flux reaching the surface
s=
Concentration of excess carrier at the surface

Fig. 1.51 Excess carrier recombination near the surface of a semiconductor with high
density of recombination centres (a) illuminated semiconductor (b) excess minority carrier
distribution
Due to increased recombination at the surface, pn(0) < pn(x) beyond the surface.
pn(0) is the concentration at x = 0 (surface)
pn(x) is the concentration at depth x from the surface
This cause a net flux of excess carriers given by
pn
− Dp . = s(pn(0) - pno) (1.98)
x x =0

pno is equilibrium hole concentration in n-type material.

s  105 cm/s for sand blasted surface
s  10 - 100 cm/s for clean etched surface

1.13.8 Diffusion of Charge Carriers

When excess carriers are generated non-uniformly in a semiconductor, the carrier

concentrations vary with position in the sample. Thus, charge carriers will move from regions of
high concentration to low concentration. This type of motion is called diffusion and the current
due to diffusive motion of charge carriers is called diffusion current.
Fig. 1.52 shows the spreading of a pulse of electrons by diffusion. Diffusion is the natural
result of the random motion of individual particles. A pulse of excess electrons injected at x = 0
at t = 0 will spread out in time as shown in Fig. 1.52. Initially excess electrons are concentrated
at x = 0, but as time elapses these excess electrons spread out and finally the carrier
concentration becomes uniform throughout and n(x) becomes constant.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 71

Fig. 1.52 Spreading of a pulse of electron by diffusion

Diffusion current (Derivation)

Consider an arbitrary one dimensional distribution of electrons n(x) as shown in Fig. 1.53.
Divide x into segments of width l (mean free path which is a very small length), with n(x)
evaluated at the centre of each segment. The electrons in any segment have equal chances of
movement towards left or right since the movement is purely random.
In one mean free time, half of the electrons in segment 1 will cross xo and move into segment
2 and half the electrons in segment 2 will cross xo and move into segment 1.
Let electron concentration in segment 1 be n1 and electron concentration in segment 2 be n2,
then
Total number of electrons in segment 1 = n1 l A
Total number of electrons in segment 2 = n2 l A
where A is the area of cross section of the sample.

Fig. 1.53 An arbitrary one dimensional electron distribution in a semiconductor (a) n(x) is
divided into segments of width I (b) expanded view of two of the segments
72 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Therefore, net number of electrons crossing xo from left to right in one mean free time
1
= (n1 l A - n2 l A) (1.99)
2
The rate of electron flow (electrons/unit time) in positive x-direction per unit area (electron
flux density) is given by
Net number of electrons moving in x direction
n ( x) =
time  Area of cross section
1
(
n1lA − n 2 lA )
= 2
tA
l
= ( n1 − n 2 )
2t
Since l is a small differential length, n1 - n2 can be written as
n( x) − n( x + x) −dn( x)
n1 - n2 = l = l (1.100)
x dx
where x is taken as the middle of segment 1 and x = l
l 2  − dn( x) 
n(x) =  
2 t  dx 
−l 2 dn( x)
=
2 t dx
dn( x)
= − Dn (1.101a)
dx
where Dn is the electron diffusion constant in cm2/s.
l2
Dn =
2t
dp( x)
Similarly p(x) = Dp (1.101b)
dx
where Dp is hole diffusion constant.
The particle flux density multiplied by the charge of the particle gives current density.
Jn diff = (-q) n
dn
= q Dn (1.102a)
dx
Jp diff = q p
dp
= -q Dp (1.102b)
dx
The total current in a semiconductor is the sum of drift and diffusion currents due to
electrons and holes. The current density due to electrons is
dn( x)
Jn(x) = qnn(x) (x) + q Dn (1.103a)
dx
The current density due to holes is
dp( x)
Jp(x) = qpp(x) (x) - q Dp (1.103b)
dx
and the total current is
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 73
J = Jn(x) + Jp(x)
The direction of carrier flow and current flow in a given electric field and carrier gradient is
shown in Fig. 1.54.

Fig. 1.54 Direction of drift and diffusion of charge carriers and the resulting currents

It can be observed that

(1) For a given direction of field, electrons and holes move in opposite directions and the
resulting drift current is along the same direction.
(2) For the same gradient (sign) electrons and holes move in the same direction and the
resulting currents are in opposite directions.
(3) Minority carriers can provide large diffusion currents, because diffusion current is
proportional to the gradient in carrier concentration and not to the number of carriers.

1.13.9 Energy Band Diagram of a Semiconductor with Applied Electric Field

The energy band diagrams of a uniformly doped n-type semiconductor under equilibrium
condition and with an electric field applied along the positive x-direction are shown in
Fig. 1.55.

Fig 1.55 Energy band diagrams of a semiconductor (a) at equilibrium (b) in an electric
field x
The applied electric field is proportional to the gradient in electron energy as given by
equation (1.105). Therefore, energy bands bend upward in the direction of the electric field.
Energy bands of a semiconductor will be flat when electric field in it is zero.
74 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

1.13.10 Einstein Relations

Einstein relation states that the ratio of diffusion coefficient to mobility of electrons and holes
are equal under thermal equilibrium and is equal to the volt equivalent of temperature (kT/q).

Dp Dn kT
i.e., = = (1.104)
p n q
Electrostatic potential and potential energy of a particle of charge q are related as follows
E( x ) Potential energy
Electrostatic potential V(x) = =
q Charge
E( x )
= E(s) (for electrons)
−q
Also, electric field
−dV ( x)
(x) =
dx
−d  Ei   dE( x ) dEC dEi dEV 
=   Q = = = 
dx  −q   dx dx dx dx 
(i.e, All energies in the EB diagram bend equally in a given electric field)
1 dEi
(x) = (1.105)
q dx
Under thermal equilibrium Jn = Jp = 0
dp0 ( x)
i.e., Jp = qpo(x) p(x) - q Dp =0
dx
dp0 ( x)
qp. po(x). (x) = q Dp .
dx
Dp 1 dp0 ( x)
(x) = .. (1.106)
 p p( x) dx
po(x) = ni e E ( x ) − Ei F ( x )/ kT
by equation (1.54)
dp0 ( x) 1  dEi dEF 
= ni e Ei ( x ) − EF ( x )/ kT  −
dx kT  dx dx 
p0 ( x)  dEi dEF 
= − (1.107)
kT  dx dx 
Substituting (1.107) in (1.106)
Dp 1 p ( x )  dEi dEF 
E( x ) =  . 0  − 
p p0 ( x ) kT  dx dx 
Under thermal equilibrium,
dEF
=0
dx
dEi
= qE( x ) x x x x(by equation (1.105))
dx
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 75
Dp 1
(x) = . . qx
 p kT
Dp kT
=
p q
Dn kT
i.e., =
n q
Dn kT
Similarly, =
n q
Dp Dn kT
or = =
p n q

1.13.11 Continuity Equation (Effect of Diffusion and Recombination)

Continuity equation is an important equation for the analysis of semiconductors. It can be used
to determine the distribution of charge carriers in a semiconductor. It considers the time and
space variation of charge carriers simultaneously. A simplified continuity equation in
differential form is derived below.
Consider a semiconductor bar with area of cross-section A. Let Jp(x) be the current density
entering an elemental volume xA and Jp(x + x) be the current density leaving the elemental
volume as shown in Fig. 1.56.

Fig. 1.56 Current density entering and leaving elemental volume xA

 p 
The rate of increase of hole concentration in the elemental volume   is given by
 t 
p
= rate of hole build up = net flux/unit volume of hole in elemental volume
t
- net recombination rate in it
= (hole flux/unit volume entering elemental volume xA
- hole flux/unit volume leaving xA - recombination rate)
76 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Jp = qp
Jp
p = = flux/unit area
q
Jp
 flux/unit volume =
q x
p J p ( x ) J p ( x + x )  p
i.e., = − −
t qx qx p
−1 [ J p ( x + x ) − J p ( x )]  p
= −
q x p
−1  J p  p
= − (1.108a)
q  x Tp

The above equation is called continuity equation for holes.

Similarly, the continuity equation for electrons is given as
n 1  J n  n
= − (1.108b)
t q  x Tn
For a uniformly doped specimen the current is only due to diffusion,
dp d
i.e., Jp = -qDp.= −qDp  p
dx dx
dp
(because, p = po + p and 0 = 0 for uniformly doped semiconductor)
dx
dn d
Similarly, Jn = q Dn . = −qDn  n
dx dx
Therefore, Equations (1.108a) and (1.108b) reduces to
p  2 p  p
= Dp −
t  x2 Tp
n  2 n  n
= Dn − (1.109b)
t  x 2 Tn
Equations (1.109a) and (1.109b) are called diffusion equations.

1.13.12 Steady-State Carrier Injection and Diffusion Length

Under steady-state conditions the time derivatives are zero and the diffusion equations reduces to
d 2 n n n
= = (l.110a)
dx 2 DnTn L2n
d 2 p p p
2
= = 2 (l.110b)
dx D p Tp L p
where Ln = Dn n is called electron diffusion length and Lp = D p p is the hole diffusion
length.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 77
These equations are called steady-state diffusion equations. The solution of the steady- state
diffusion equation for holes is of the form

p(x) = C1 ex/Lp+C2 e-x/Lp (1.111)

Consider a uniformly doped semi-infinite n-type semiconductor bar in which excess carriers
are introduced at x = 0. Let p(x=0) = p. The excess carrier concentration decays to zero at the
end of the semiconductor bar (x = ).

At x = 0 , p = p ; C1 + C2 = p
At x →, p = 0 ; C1 = 0
 C2 = p

p(x)

− x / Lp
 pe
p
e

0 Lp x

Fig. 1.57 Decay of excess holes and diffusion length

Thus the solution is p(x) = p e-x/Lp (1.112)

The distribution of excess carrier given by eq 1.12 is shown in Fig. 1.17.

The injected excess carrier concentration decay exponentially to 1/e times its initial value at a
diffusion length from the point of injection. It can be shown that Lp is the average distance a
hole diffuse before it recombines.

Example 1.19 Prove that Lp is the average distance a hole diffuse before it recombines.
The probability that a hole injected at x = 0 survives to x without recombination is the ratio
− x / Lp
pe − x / Lp
of the excess carrier concentrations at x and at 0, and is equal to =e .
p
The probability that a hole recombines in a subsequent interval dx is
78 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

 p( x ) −  p( x + dx )  p( x ) −  p( x + dx ) dx
=
 p( x ) dx  p( x )
−x
−d dx −d dx
 p( x). = pe p .
L
=
dx  px dx  px
−x
 1  dx 1 dx
= −pe =  p( x ).
Lp
  .
 − Lp   px Lp  px
1
= dx
Lp
The probability P(x) that a hole injected at x = 0 recombines in a given distance dx, is the
product of the probability that it survives to x without recombination and probability of
recombination in subsequent interval dx.
−x
Lp dx
i.e., p(x) = e .
Lp
The average distance a hole diffuse before recombination is
 − x / Lp
e
< x > = x
0
Lp

( ) ( )
1  − x / Lp 


− x / Lp
= x.e − L − e − L .1dx
Lp  0
p p

( − L )

=  − xe
− x / Lp − x / Lp
+e p = Lp
0

1.13.13 Built in field

Built in field is the field present in a semiconductor under thermal equilibrium. Electric fieldbe
present in a semiconductor at equilibrium, if a carrier concentration gradient exists in the
semiconductor.
Example 1.20 In a silicon sample, the doping profile is in such a way that no = Gx where G is
a constant. Determine the built-in field in the semiconductor if no n0 >> ni.
Under thermal equilibrium,
dn0
Jp = qn0 n(x) + qDn =0
dx
− Dn 1 dn0 ( x)
(x) = 
n n0 dx
Dn kT
= by Einstein relation
n q
dn0 ( x)
=G
dx
− kT 1
 (x) =  G
q Gx
− kT
=
qx
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 79
1.13.14 Minority Carrier Injection-Drift And Diffusion Currents

Consider a long semiconductor bar doped uniformly with ND donor atoms/cm3 so that no  ND.
Let A be its cross-sectional area. It is illuminated at x = 0 as shown in Fig. 1.58 so that there is a
steady generation of EHP and the resulting excess carrier concentration be p = n (at x = 0).
Since the bar is of n-type, the hole drift current is negligible.
dp
 Jp = -q D p .
dx
J p 2 p
= −qD p .
x x 2

Fig. 1.58 Steady-state injection of minority carriers into a semiconductor

Applying this in the continuity equation,

p −1 Jp  p
= −
t q x  p
p
= 0 (steady-state)
t
d2p p p
 = =
dx 2
D p p L2p
Solution to this equation is
p(x) = pe-x/Lp
i.e., the injected hole concentration decays exponentially.
Minority carrier diffusion current,
d
Ip(x) = -q A Dp (pe-x/Lp)
dx
Dp
=qA pe-x/Lp
Lp
Dp
=qA [pn(0) - pn0] e-x/Lp
Lp
i.e., the minority carrier diffusion current also decays exponentially with x.
Assuming that electrical neutrality is maintained in the semiconductor, i.e., p=n, (under
low-level injection) throughout the bar
dp dn
=
dx dx
Electron diffusion current,
80 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

dn
In diff = q A Dn
dx
dp
= q A Dn
dx
dp
But - q A Dp = Ip (hole diffusion current)
dx
− Dn
 In diff = Ip
Dp
Hence, electron and hole diffusion currents vary almost similarly with distance
Dn
 2 for Ge and 3 for Si
Dp
Drif Currents

The total current must be zero everywhere in the semiconductor.

i.e., Ip + (In drift - In diff) = 0 (see Fig. 1.59)
 Dn 
Ip +  I n drift − Ip  = 0
 Dp 

D 
 I n drift =  n − 1 I p
D 
 p 
i.e., majority carrier drift current also decrease exponentially with distance.

Fig. 1.59 Excess electron and hole distribution for the specimen shown in Fig. 1.58.
The drift current is due to the electric field present as a result of the difference in distribution
of the excess electrons and holes as shown in Fig. 1.59.
J n drift J n drift I n drift
(x) = = =
 qnn Aqnn
1  Dn 
(x) =  − 1 I p

(1.113)
Aqnn  Dp 
The derivation was based on the assumption that Jp drift = 0
But Ip drift = Aqpp(x) (1.114)
Using (1.113) and (1.114)
p  p  Dn 
Ip drift =  − 1 I p
n n  Dp 

p << n Ip drift << In drift
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 81
1.13.15 Gradient in Quasi-Fermi Levels

At equilibrium, gradient in Fermi level is zero. But a combination of drift and diffusion with a
net current implies a gradient in quasi Fermi levels. The total electron current is given by
dn( x)
Jn(x) = qn(x)n x + q Dn. (1.115)
dx
dn( x) d
But = ni e( Fn − Ei )/ kT
dx dx
n( x)  dFn dEi 
= − (1.116)
kT  dx dx 
Substituting equations (1.116) in (1.115) and applying Einstein relation,
 dF dE 
Jn(x) = qn(x)n x + n n(x)  n − i 
 dx dx 
dFn dE
= qn(x)n x + n n(x) − n n(x) i
dx dx
dF
=qn(x)n x + n n(x) n − n n(x)qx ,by equation (1.105)
dx
dFn
= n n(x)
dx
d  Fn 
= qn n(x).  
dx  q 
d  Fn 
= n(x).   (1.117)
dx  q 
Equation (1.117) shows that total electron current is proportional to the gradient in electron
quasi-Fermi level.
d  Fp 
Similarly, Jp(x) = qp p(x)  
dx  q 
d  Fp 
= p(x)   (1.118)
dx  q 

Table 1.9 Important properties of intrinsic germanium, silicon and gallium arsenide at
300 K

Properties Ge Si GaAs

Energy band gap Eg (eV) 0.67 1.11 1.43

Electron mobility n(cm2/Vs) 3900 1350 8500
Hole mobility p (cm2/Vs) 1900 480 400
Resistivity ( cm) 43 2.5  105 4  108
Lattice constant a(Å) 5.66 5.43 5.65
Relative permittivity r 16 11.8 13.2
82 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Density (g/cm3) 5.32 2.33 5.31

Intrinsic carrier
concentration ni (cm-3) 2.5  1013 1.5  1010 2  106

Solved Problems
Problem 1.1
The lattice constant of diamond crystal is 3.56 A. Calculate the number of atoms/cm2 in the
diamond crystal in (100) and (111) planes.
Solution
(100) plane is a face of the cube as in Fig. Sp. 1.16(b).
1
Number of atoms on a face of the cube = 4+l=2
4
Area of face = a2
Number of atoms on a face
No. of atoms/cm2 on (100) plane =
area of the face
2 2
= = = 1.578  1015
a 2 (3.56  10−8 ) 2
(111) plane in a cubic cell represent an equilateral triangle of side 2a as in Fig.
Sp.l.l(a).

Fig. Sp.1.1

Number of atoms/equilateral triangle of side 2a

1 1
= 3+ 3 = 2
2 6
1
area of the triangle =  2a . 2a sin 60
2
3 2
= a
2
2
Number of atoms/cm on (111) plane =
3 2
a
2
2 2
=
3  (3.56 10−8 )2
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 83
= 1.822  1015.
Problem 1.2
Determine the density of GaAs, given the lattice constant a = 5.65Å, molecular weight
= 144.63 g/mole and Avogadro number is 6.02  1023 atoms/mole.

Solution
In one unit cell, there will be 4 atoms of Ga and 4 atoms of As or 4 molecules of GaAs.
4
 Number of GaAs molecules/cm =
a3
4
=
(5.65  10 −8 )3
= 2.217  1022 atoms/cm3
Density of GaAs' equals the weight of atoms in 1 cm3 i.e., weight of 2.217  1022 atoms.
Weight of Avogadro number of molecules = molecular weight
molecular weight
 density =  number ot atoms / cm 3
Avogadro number
144.63  2.217  1022
=
6.02  1023
= 5.3 gm/cm3
Problem 1.3
Determine the energy of a photon having wave length a.  = 10,000 Å and b.  = 10 A.
Express the result in Joules and eV.

Solution
1 Å = 10-8 cm
a.  = 10,000 Å = 10-4 cm
hc
Energy of photon = E = hυ=

h = 6.626  10 -34
J/s C = 3  1010 cm/sec
6.626  10−34  3  1010
 E =
10−4
= 19.878  10-20 J
19.878 10−20
= eV = 1.242 eV
1.6  10−19
b.  = 10 Å = 10-7 cm
6.626  10−34  3  1010
Energy of photon E =
10−7
= 19.878  10-17 J
19.878 10−17
= eV
1.6 10−19
= 1242.37 eV.
84 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Problem 1.4

The velocity of a free particle is 5  105 m/s. The mass of the particle is 10-30 kg. Determine a.
the energy of particle b. the de-Broglie wave length.

Solution
v = 5  105 m/s = 5  107 cm/s
m = 10-30 kg = 10-27 g
1
a. Energy = mv2
2
1
=  10-27  (5  107)2
2
= 12.5  10-13 J
h
b. de-Broglie wavelength,  =
mv
6.626  10−34
 =
10−27  5 107
= 1.325  10-14 cm.

Problem 1.5
For a particle that has a mass of 2 g and energy 1.5 kT, determine de-Broglie wave length at 300
K. kT = 0.026 eV.

Solution
Given E = 1.5 kT
kT = 0.026 eV
= 0.026  1.6  10-19 J
E = 1.5  0.026  1.6  10-19 J
1
But E = mv2
2
2E
or v =
m
2 1.5  0.026 1.6 10−19
=
2
= 7.9  10-11 cm/s
de-Broglie wave length,  = h/mv
6.626 10−34
=
2  7.9 10−11
= 4.19  10-24 cm.

Problem l.6
Show that the probability that an electron with a mean free time t in a semiconductor remains
unscattered for a time t is proportional to e( −t / tˆ) . Consider a semiconductor with different
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 85
scattering processes independent of each other. Show that the resultant mean free time t is
1 1 1 1
given by = + + ... .
t t1 t2 tn

Solution
Let No be the initial number of particles at t = 0 and the number of particles that are unscattered
at time t be N(t). The rate of decrease of N(t) is proportional to N(t) itself. So,

dN (t )
− =  N (t )
dt

where  is a constant of proportionality.  has dimension of reciprocal time. So we can write

1
= .
t
dN (t ) − N (t )
i.e., =
dt t
N (t )
The solution of the equation is N(t) = N0 e( − t / t ) and is the probability p that a particle
N0
remain unscattered for time t.
p = e( −t / t )

If we have n independent scattering process with probabilities p1, p2, p3 . . . pn with mean free
time t1 , t2 , t3 ...tn, the composite probability is given by
p = p1 p2 p3 . . . pn
e( −t / t ) = e−t /t1  e−t /t2  e−t / t3  ...e−t / tn
1 1 1
− t  + +... 
 t1 t2 tn 
=e
1 1 1 1
 = + + ...
t t1 t2 tn
Problem 1.7
Derive expression for the displacement of Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor from the
middle of its band gap at equilibrium.

Solution
For intrinsic semiconductor under thermal equilibrium,
po = no
− ( Ei − EV )/ kT
i.e. NV e = NC e− ( E − E )/ kT
C i

N
e− ( EV + EC −2 Ei )/ kT = C
NV

EC

Eg
EV + EC
2
2
Eg Eg
= EV +
2 2
EV
86 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Fig. Sp.1.7
Taking natural logarithm
NC
EV + EC - 2Ei = kTln
NV
EV + EC kT N
− Ei = ln C
2 2 NV
3
kT  m*  2
= ln  n*  (by equations (1.40) and (l.46))
2  mn 
3  mn* 
= kTln  * 
4  mp 
Eg 3  mn* 
EV + - Ei = kTln  *  (see fig. Sp. 1.7)
2 4  mp 

+ EC
Remark: If mn* = m*p ; E
V
2
− Ei = 0. Fermi level lies at the middle of the band
(
gap EV +
Eg
2 ) . Usually effective masses of electrons ( mn* ) and holes ( m*p ) are different in
semiconductors. Because of this the Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor will be slightly
displaced from the middle of the band gap as shown by the above equation and as illustrated in
the next problem.

Problem 1.8
Find the displacement of intrinsic Fermi level from the middle of the band gap for Ge, Si, and
GaAs at 300 K. The effective masses are as given below.
Ge Si GaAs
*
mn 0.55m0 1.18 m0 0.068 m0
m*p 0.37 m0 0.81 m0 0.56 m0

Solution
Eg
Ei = EV + - Ei
2
3  m* 
= kTln  *n 
4  mp 
3  0.55 
Ei for Ge =  0.026 ln   = 7.73  10 eV
-3
4  0.37 
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 87
3  1.18 
Ei for Si  0.026 ln 
=  = 7.73  10 eV
-3
4  0.81 
3  0.068 
Ei for GaAs =  0.026 ln   = -0.0411 eV
4  0.56 
Remark : Ei is below middle of band gap for Ge and Si and above it for GaAs.

Problem 1.9
For a silicon sample at 300 K po = 4  1012 cm-3 a. determine the electron density b. determine
the acceptor density if donor density is 1012 cm-3.

Solution
po = 4  1012 cm-3
ni2
 no =
po

=
(1.5 10 ) 10 2

= 5.625  107 cm-3

4  1010
If all impurities are ionized,
po - no = NA - ND
 NA = po - no + ND
ND = 1012 cm-3
 NA = 4  1012 - 5.625  107 + 1012
= 5  1012 cm-3

Problem 1.10
The Fermi level in a silicon sample at 300 K is located at 0.3 eV below the bottom of the
conduction band. The effective densities of states NC = 3.22  1019 cm-3 and NV = 1.83  1019
cm-3. Determine (a) the electron and hole concentrations (b) the intrinsic carrier concentration
at 300 K.

Solution
no = NC e−( E C − EF )
/ kT
−0.3
= 3.22  1019 e 0.026
= 3.14  1014 cm-3
EF - EV = Eg - (EC - EF) (see Fig. Sp. 1.10)
= 1.1 - 0.3 = 0.8 eV
po = NV e−( E − E ) / kT
F V

−0.8
= 1.83  1019 e 0.026
= 7.93  105 cm-3
− E g / 2 kT
ni = N C NV e
−1.1
= 3.22  1019  1.83 1019 e 20.026 1^6
88 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

= 1.578  1010 cm-3

EC _____________________
0.3eV
EF _____________________
Ei _____________________

EV _____________________
0.8eV Eg = 1.1eV

Fig. Sp.1.10

Problem 1.11
The Fermi level in a silicon sample at equilibrium is located 0.40 eV below the middle of band
gap at 300 K.
a. Determine the probability of occupancy of a state located at the middle of band gap
b. Determine the probability of occupancy of acceptor states if they are located 0.04 eV
above the top of the valence band.

Solution
a. Probability of occupancy of the middle of band gap
1
f(Ei) =
1 + e( Ei − EF ) / kT
1
= 0.4
1 + e 0.026
= 2.08  10-7
b. From Fig. Sp. 1.11,
EA - EF = - [EF - EV - (EA - EV)]
= - [0.15 - 0.04]
= - 0.11 eV
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 89
______________________________________ EC

______________________________________ Ei

0.55eV 0.4eV
______________________________________ EF
0.15eV 0.11eV
_______________________________________ EA
0.04eV
______________________________________ EV

Fig. Sp.1.11

Probability of occupancy of acceptor state

1
f(EA) = ( E A − EF )
1+ e / kT
1
= −0.11
= 0.9856
1+ e 0.026

Problem 1.12
The intrinsic carrier concentration of silicon at 300 K is 1.5  1010 cm-3, n = 1500 cm2/Vs and
p = 450 cm2/Vs. The silicon sample is doped with donors of concentration 5  1016 cm3 and
then compensated by acceptor doping. The compensated silicon sample has resistivity 1  cm.
Determine acceptor concentration, assuming that the mobilities remain unchanged.

Solution
ND = 5  1016 cm-3 >> ni
 no = 5  1016 cm-3
1 1
 = =
qno n 1.6  10−19  5  1016  1500
= 0.083 cm
After compensation
Case 1: ND > NA
1
 = 1cm
qno n
1
no' =
1.6 10−19 1500
= 4.16  1015
no' = ND - NA
NA = ND - no'
= 5  1016 - 4.16  1015
= 4.58  1016 cm-3
Case 2: NA > ND
90 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

1
 = 1cm
qpo  p
1
po' = −19
1.6 10  450
= 1.389  1016
po' = NA - ND
NA = po' + ND
= 1.389  1016 + 5  1016
= 6.389  1016 cm-3

Problem 1.13
An n-type silicon bar 0.1 cm long and 100 m2 in cross sectional area has a majority carrier
concentration of 5 x 1015 cm-3 and electron mobility is 1300 cm2/Vs at 300 K.
What is the resistance of the bar?

Solution
no = 5 × 1015 cm-3, A = 100 µm2 = 100 × 10-8 cm2
1 1
 = =
 qno  n
1
= −19
= 0.962  cm
1.6 10  5 1015 1300
L
R =
A
0.962  0.1
= = 96200cm
100 10−8
= 96.2 k

Problem 1.14
An intrinsic Ge sample at room temperature has resistivity of 50  cm. The sample is uniformly
doped to the extent of 6 × 1013 Arsrnic atoms/cm3 and 1014 Boron atoms per cm3. Find the
conduction current density if an electric field of 4 V/cm is applied across the sample. µ n = 3800
cm2 / Vs; µp = 1800 cm2 / Vs.

Solution
1
 =
qni ( n +  p )
1
ni =
q  ( n +  p )
1
= −19
= 2.23 × 1013 cm-3
1.6  10  50(3800+1800)
ND = 6 × l013cm-3 NA = 1014 cm-3
From charge neutrality equation, assuming that impurities are completely ionized
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 91
po - no = NA - ND
= 1014 - 6 × 1013
= 4 × 1013 cm-3
no - po = ni2
ni2
 po- = NA - ND
po
p02 - (NA - ND) p0 - ni2 =0
( N A − N D )  ( N A − N D ) 2 + 4ni2
p0 =
2
4 10  (4 1013 ) 2 + 4  (2.23 1013 )2
13
p0 =
2
= 5 × 1013 cm-3 (negative value neglected)
ni2
n0 =
po

=
( 2.23 10 ) 13 2

5  1013
= 9.94 × 1012 cm-3
J = q (µnno + µppo) x
= 1.6 × 10-19 (3800 × 9.94 × 1012 + 1800 × 5 × 1013) × 4
= 0.0817 A/cm2

Problem 1.15
A sample of intrinsic semiconductor has resistance of 10 , at 364 K and 100  at 333 K,
Assuming that this change is entirely due to the effect of variation of ni with temperature,
calculate the band gap Ego of the semiconductor.

Solution
At T1 = 364 K R = 10 
T2 = 333 K R = 100 
3
− Eg / 2 kT − Eg / 2 kT
ni = N C NV e KT 2 e
( T1 ) L
R(T1 )  i (T2 ) ni (T2 )
= A
= =
R(T2 ) ( T2 ) L
A
 i (T1 ) ni (T1 )
3
− E / 2 kT
R(T1 ) 10 ni (T2 )  T2  2 e go 2
= = =   − Ego / 2 kT1
R(T2 ) 100 ni (T1 )  T1  e
3

1  T2  − 2Ekgo  T12 − T11 

2

i.e., =  e
10  T1 
3

 T2  2 1 − Ego 1
 −1
 T2 T1 
   =e
2k 

 T1  10
92 Semiconductor Materials and Physics
3

 364  2 1 − Ego
 1 − 1 
   = e 2 k  333 364 

 333  10
Taking natural logarithm
− Ego
ln 0.11428 = (2.557 10−4 )
2k
2.169  2 1.38066 10−23
Ego =
2.557  10−4
= 2.34  10-19 J
2.34 10−19
= eV =1.46eV
1.6 10−19

Problem 1.16
Prove that the fractional change in conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor is given by
 = T
d
(
dT 3
2
E g
)
+ 2 kT assuming that the change in conductivity is only due to the variation of intrinsic
carrier concentration with temperature.

Solution
− E g / 2 kT
ni = N C NV e
3
 Substituting values of N C and N V 
= K1T 2 e − E g / 2 kT
 
 from equations (1.40 ) and (1.46 ) 
 = 2qni (µn + µp)
3 3
 (T) = 2q K1T 2 e− E g / 2 kT
(µn + µp) = K 2T 2 e − E g / 2 kT

where K2 = 2K1q(µn + µp)

Taking natural logarithm
3 Eg
ln  = ln K2 + ln T −
2 2kT 2
On differentiation with respect to T
d dT  3 Eg 
=  + 
 T  2 2kT 

Problem 1.17
The conductivity of an intrinsic silicon sample at 300 K is 4.4 × 10-4 ( cm)-1. Determine the
conductivity of the semi conductor if temperature rises to 315 K.

Solution
d dT  3 Eg 
=  + 
 T  2 2kT 
 = 4.4 × 10-4 ( cm)-1
dT = 15 K
kT = 0.026 eV
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 93
T = 300 K
 dT  3 Eg 
new =  + d =  1 +  + 
 T  2 2kT  
 15  3 1.1  
= 4.4 × 10-4 1 +  + 
 300  2 2  0.026  
= 9.38 × 10 ( cm)-1
-4

Problem 1.18
The resistivity o of a Ge sample is measured at 300 K. The sample is then remelted and doped
with 4.4 × 1016 arsenic atoms cm-3. The new crystal has resistivity of 0.1  cm and is n-type.
Determine the type and concentration of impurity atoms in the original sample and value of o.
Assume n = 2 p = 3000 cm2/Vs.

Solution
After doping we have,
1
 = = 0.1cm
q n no
 n0 = (1.6 × 10-19 × 3000 × 0.1)-1
= 2.083 × 1016 cm-3
which is less than the added donor concentration ND = 4.4 × 1016 cm-3.
The original sample was p-type.
ND - NA = no
 NA = 4.4 × 1016 - 2.083 × 1016
= 2.317 × 1016 cm-3
where NA is the acceptor doping in the original sample.
Therefore, for the original sample po = NA = 2.318 × 1016 cm-3
1
Resistivity of original sample po =
qp0  p
po = (1.6 × 10-19 × 2.318 × 1016 × 1500)-1
= 0.179  cm

Problem 1.19
The Fermi-level position in an n-type Ge film is 0.2 eV above the intrinsic Fermi-level. The
thickness of the film is 0.5 m. Calculate the sheet resistance of the film.
ni = 2.5 × 1013 cm-3, n = 3500 cm2 /Vs, p = 1500 cm2 /Vs, kT/q = 0.025 V.

Solution
no = ni e( E − E )/ kT
F i

EF - Ei = 0.2 eV
kT
= 0.025 V  kT = 0.025 eV
q
94 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

 no = 2.5 × 1013 e(0-2/0-025)

= 7.45 × 1016
ni2 ( 2.5  10 )
13

p0 = =
n0 7.45  1016
= 8.39 × 109
 = q(non + p0p)
= 1.6 × 10-19 (7.45 × 1016 × 3500 + 8.39 × 109 × 1500)
= 41.72 ( cm)-1
L L  L
Resistance R= = . = .
A w.t t w
L
= Rs.where RS is sheet resistance
w
 1 1
RS = = =
t  t 41.72  0.5 10−4
= 479.39 /

Problem 1.20
A GaAs sample is doped so that the electron and hole components of currents are equal in an
applied electric field. Calculate the equilibrium electron-hole concentrations, the net doping and
the sample resistivity at 300 K.
n = 8500 cm2/Vs, p = 400 cm2 /Vs, ni = 1.79 × 106 cm-3

Solution
For a given electric field,
Jn drift = Jp drift when n = p
n
i.e., p po = n no or po =  n0
p
For GaAs nopo = ni2
no × 21.25 no = (1.79 × 106)2
 no = 3.88 × 105 cm-3
po = 21.25 × 3.88 × 105
= 8.25 × 106 cm-3
po > no  Net doping = NA- ND = po - no
Net doping = (8.25 × 106 - 3.88 × 105)
= 7.86 × 106 cm-3
1
Sample resistivity  =
q[ n n0 +  p po ]
1
=
2q  n n0
1
= −19
2 1.6 10  8500  3.88 105
= 9.48  108  cm.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 95
Problem 1.21
A silicon sample is doped with 1015 phosphorous atoms/cm3. At 300 K, calculate, the
electron and hole concentrations and position of the Fermi level. Assume that the distribution of
states in the conduction band is given by N(E)dE = 8  1020 EdE cm-3 where E is expressed in
electron volts. Calculate the number of electrons between the energy interval 1.9 kT and 2.1 kT
above the band edge EC.

Solution
Let ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm-3
ND = 1015 cm-3 >> ni
 no = ND = 1015 cm-3
nopo = (1.5 × 1010)2
 po = 2.25 × 105 cm-3
no = ni e( E − E )/ kT
F i

n0
EF = Ei + kT ln = Ei + 0.287 eV
ni
Eg
 EC - EF = − ( EF − Ei )
2
= 0.56 - 0.287 = 0.273 eV
At 300 K, EC - EF = 0.273 eV
0.273
= kT (Q 1 kT = 0.026 eV)
0.026
= 10.5 kT .
Assuming that f(E) is constant from (EC + 1.9 kT) to (EC + 2.1 kT),
1 1
f(EC +2kT) = ( EC + 2 kT − EF )/ kT
= ( EC − EF + 2 kT )/ kT
1+ e 1+ e
1 1
= = = 3.726 × 10-6
1 + e(10.55+ 2) kT / kT 1 + e12.5

--------------------------------------------
2.1 kT
E=EC+2kT--------------------------------------------
2 kT
--------------------------------------------
12.55 kT
EC _____________________________ 1.9 kT
0.273eV = 10.55 kT
EF _____________________________
Ei _____________________________

EV ___________________________

Fig. Sp. 1.21

96 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

To find the number of electrons (n) in the energy interval 1.9 kT to 2.1 kT above EC,
multiply the probability of occupancy at 2kT above EC with total number of states this energy
range. See also Fig. Sp.1.21.
2.1kT
∆n = f(EC + 2kT) 
1.9 kT
N ( E )dE

2.1kT
= 3.726 × 10-6 × 8 × 1020 
19 kT
EdE

2  32  2.1kT
= 2.981 × 1015 ×  E kT = 0.026 eV
3  19 kT
= 3.53 × 1012 cm-3.

Problem 1.22
A semiconductor is known to have a band gap of 1.25 eV and intrinsic carrier concentraton of
1.6 × 1010 cm-3 at room temperature. Estimate NC and NV, if mn* : m*p = 4 :1.

Solution
ni2 = NC NV e−( E C − EV )/ kT

NC NV = ni2 e−( E C − EV )/ kT

1.25
= (1.6 × 1010)2 e 0.025

= 1.327 × 1042 cm-6 (A)

3

NC m * 2

 = ( 4 ) 2
3
= n

NV m *
 p 
 NC = 8NV
Substituting in (A)
8 NV2 = 1.327 × 1042
NV = 4.07 × 1020 cm-3
NC = 3.26 × 1021 cm-3

Problem 1.23
The current required to feed the hole injection at x = 0 is given by Ip(x=0) = qADp∆p/Lp. Show
that this current can be obtained by integrating the charge stored in the steady-state hoie
distribution p(x) and then dividing by the average hole lifetime p. Explain why this approach
gives Ip(x = 0).

Solution

Qp = qA ×   p( x)dx
0

Qp =qA  pe− x / L dx p

= qALp∆p
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 97
Qp qALp p
= =
p p
Dpp = L2p
Dp Lp
i.e., =
Lp p
p
 Ip = qADp.
p
The charge distribution Qp disappears due to recombination in every p seconds. Therefore,
the steady-state distribution is retained by injection in every p seconds.
Qp
 hole current injected at x = 0 is
p

Problem 1.24
In figure Sp.1.24, the steady-state excess hole concentration at x = 0 is ∆p = 1015 cm-3. The semi
infinite Ge bar has a cross-sectional area of 10-2 cm2. The hole diffusion length Lp is 10-3 cm and
the hole lifetime is 10-4 s.
a. What is the steady-state stored charge Qp in the exponential excess hole distribution?
b. What is the hole current Ip(x= 0) feeding this steady-state distribution.
c. What is the slope of the distribution in cm-4 at x = 0.

Fig. Sp. 1.24

Solution
a. Qp = qA Lp ∆p
= 1.6 × 10-19 × 10-2 × 10-3 × 1015
= 1.6 × 10-9 C
Qp
b. Ip =
p
1.6 10−9
= = 1.6 × 10-5 A
10−4
d p Ip −1.6  10−5
c. = =
dx x =0 qAD p 1.6  10−19 10−2  10−2
= -1018 cm-4.
98 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Problem 1.25
A p-type semiconductor sample with a resistivity of 40 cm at 300 K is uniformly illuminated
with light that generates 1013 EHP cm-3 s-1. In steady-state, calculate the change in resistivity of
the sample caused by light. If light is switched off at t = 0, calculate the time required for the
excess conductivity to drop to one tenth of its value at t=0. Assume n = 10-6 s. n = 3900
cm2/Vs, p = 1900 cm2/Vs, ni = 2.4 × l013cm-3

Solution
p = n = Gopn
= 1013 × 10-6 = 107 cm-3
Photo conductivity op = q(n + p) p
= 1.6 × 10-19 (3900 + 1900) 107
= 9.28 × 10-9 ( cm)-1
1 1
Original-conductivity = = = 2.5 × 10-2 ( cm)-1
 40
which is large compared to .
Therefore, change in  is negligible.  drops to 10% when p and n drops to 10% of its
initial value.
 n(t ) −t / 10
=e n
= = 0.1
n 100
1
e − t / Tn =
10
t = n ln 10
= 10-6 × 2.302
= 2.3 × 10-6 s.

Problem 1.26
An n-type silicon sample with no >> ni and n = 2p is subjected to a steady illumination such
that the electron concentration doubles from its thermal equilibrium value. By what factor will
the specimen's conductivity increase?

Solution
Let no be the equilibrium electron concentration in the sample. Since the sample is n-type no >>
po. Therefore equilibrium conductivity
o = qnon = qno . 2p = 2qnop
Let n and p be the new electron and hole concentrations. As the electron concentration
doubles
n = 2no i.e., n = no = p
 p = po + p  p = no
Therefore conductivity of specimen with illumination
 = qnn + qpp
= q(2no)2p + qnop
= 4qnop + qnop
= 5qnop
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 99
 5qno  p
= = 2.5
 o 2qno  p
Therefore the conductivity of the specimen will increase by a factor of 2.5.

Problem 1.27
The current I in a forward biased p-n junction in Fig. Sp. 1.27 is entirely due to diffusion of
holes from x = 0 to x = L. The injected hole concentration distribution in the n-region is linear
as shown in figure with p(0) = 1012 /cm3 and L = 10-3 cm.
Determine (a) the current density in the diode assuming that Dp = 12 cm2/s (b) the velocity
of holes in the n-region at x = 0

Fig. Sp. 1.27

Solution
dp( x) p(0) − p( L)
=
dx 0−L
1012 − 0
= = −1015 cm −4
0 − 10−3
dp ( x)
J = -qDp = -1.6 × 10-19 × 12 × -1015
dx
= 1.92 × 10-3 A/cm2 = 1.92 mA/cm2
J(0) = p(0)qv
1.92 10−3
 velocity v = = 1.2 104 cm / s
1.6 10−10 1012
Problem 1.28
Interpret the energy band diagram shown in Fig. Sp.1.28.
100 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

EC
EF

2eV
Ei
1eV

EV
Fig. Sp.1.28

Solution
a. Band gap = 2 eV,
b. n-type semiconductor,
dEF
c. non equilibrium,  0,
dx
d. External electric field in the negative x-direction,
e. n = p = 0 as Fn = Fp = EF,
f. Specimen is uniformly doped (Q EC - EF is constant),
g. Potential difference between the ends of the semiconductor

E 1eV
V= = = −1V .
(−q ) −q

h. No excess carriers present.

Problem 1.29
Interpret the energy band diagram shown in Fig. Sp.1.29.

Fig. Sp.1.29
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 101
Solution
 dE 
a. The specimen is not in equilibrium  F  0  .
 dx 
b. The energy band diagram represents a uniformly doped n-type semiconductor
with excess carriers injected from x = 0.
c. As the energy bands are flat no electric field exist in the semiconductor.
d. Excess carrier injection is low-level as the shift in majority carrier Fermi-level
(Fn) is negligible.
e. Seperation of quasi Fermi-levels decreases from left to right and join together at
the end. This indicates that injected excess carriers diffuse into the bar,
undergoes. recombination and decays to zero at the end of the bar.
Problem 1.30
A Silicon sample is doped with 1015 donors cm-3. Calculate the excess electron and hole
concentrations n = p required to increase the sample conductivity by 15%. What carrier
generation rate is required to maintain this excess concentration. Assume p = 0.3 n, p = 10-6 s,
T = 300 K.

Solution
no = 1015 cm-3
Since specimen is n-type
 = qnno = 1.6 × 10-19 × l015 n
= 1.6 × 10-4 n
For sample conductivity to increase by 15%
 = q(n +p) p = 0.15 
1.6 × l0 (n + 0.3n) p
-19
= 0.15 × 1.6 × 10-4 n
p = 1.15 × 1014 cm-3 = n
p
Carrier generation rate G =
p
1.15  1014
= = 1.15 × 1020 cm-3 s-1.
10−6
Problem 1.31
An n-type bar of GaAs has a length / and an area of cross-section A. The bar is illuminated with
light that generates Gop electron hole pairs cm-3 s-1 uniformly. Assuming the hole mobility to be
negligible, show that the steady-state photo current in the bar can be written as Iop = qAlGop
p
where t is the average transit time of electrons through the bar and p is the minority carrier
t
lifetime.

Solution
n = p = Gop p
vd
 =
n
Since n >> p, op = qn n
102 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

Photo current Iop = op  = qAn n  = qAGop p vd

l
but vd =
t
p
 Iop = qAlGop
t
Problem 1.32
A Ge sample is uniformly doped with 5 × 1016 atoms/cm3 of In. Assume all impurity atoms are
ionized and take ni = 2 × 1013 cm-3 at 290 K.
a. Calculate the electron and hole concentrations in the sample.
b. Assume that the intrinsic concentration in Ge increases by 6% per oK rise in
temperature, estimate the temperature (T) at which the sample becomes intrinsic.

Solution
a. Indium is acceptor impurity in Germanium
so NA = 5 × 1016 cm-3 >> ni
 po = 5 × 1016 cm-3
ni2 ( 2  10 )
13 2

no = =
po 5  1016
= 8 × 109 cm-3
b. At intrinsic temperature NA  5ni
N A 5  1016
ni = = =1016 cm-3
5 5
It is given that
1 dni
= 0.06
ni dT
dni
= 0.06 dT
ni
Integrating, ln ni = 0.06T + C; where C is constant of integration
 ni = C e006T
ni (T) = C e0.06T = 1016 (A)

ni (290) = C e(0.06 × 290) =2 × 1013 (B)

Equations (A)  (B)
C e0.06T 1016
=
C e17.4 2 1013
e(0.06T-17.4) = 500
0.06T - 17.4 = ln 500
6.215 + 17.4
T = = 393.6 K .
0.06
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 103

▪ Points to Remember

• Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Px  h ;  E t  h
h
• de Broglie wavelength  =
mv
• Time independant Schrodinger wave equation
 2 2m
+ 2 (E - V) = 0
x
2
h
• Fermi Dirac distribution function
1
f(E) =
1 + e( E − EF ) / kT
• Effective mass
h2
m* = d2E
dK 2

• Thermal generation rate g(T) = r ni2

• Recombination rate r = r np
• Density of states in conduction band
3/ 2
 2 mn* kT 
NC = 2  2 
 h 
• Density of states in valence band
3/ 2
 2 m*p kT 
NV = 2  2 
 h 
no = NC e− ( E C − EF )/ kT = ni e ( EF − Ei )/ kT

po = NV e− ( E F − EV )/ kT = ni e ( Ei − EF )/ kT

• Mass action law,

no po = ni2
− Eg / 2 kT − Ego / 2 kT
ni(T) = NC NV e = KT 3/ 2 e
• For T > 50 K
ni(T) = 1.76 × l016 T3/2 e-4550/T cm-3 for Ge
ni(T) = 3.88 × l016 T3/2 e-7000/T cm-3 for Si

• Jn drift = -nqvx = n x
• Jp drift = pqvx = p x
• Conductivity n = qnn; p = qpp
qt −v x
Mobility n = =
mn* Ex
qt v x
p = =
m*p Ex
104 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

dEF
• = 0 at thermal equilibrium
dx
• By Hall effect
I x Bz
po =
qtVAB
VCD / I x
 =
L / wt
1 −1
RH = or
qpo qno
RH
 =

1
• n =
 r po
1
p =
 r no
• For direct recombination
n = p = gop p
• Under non-equilibrium
np = ni2 e( F − F )/ kT
n p

• Diffusion currents

dp
Jp diff = -qDp.
dx
dn
Jn diff = qDn.
dx
• Einstein relation
Dn Dp kT
= =
n p q
• Continuity equations
p −1 J p  p
( x, t ) = −
t q x  p
n −1 J n  n
( x, t ) = −
t q x  n
• Diffusion length is the average distance a charge carrier diffuse before it recombincs.
• Minority carrier lifetime is the average time a charge carrier survive without
recombination after it is generated.
• Built-in field is the field that exist in a semiconductor or semiconductor device at
equilibrium.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 105
▪ Exercise Problems

(l) (a) The position of an electron is determined with an error less than 0.5 Å. What is the
minimum uncertainty in its momentum?
(b) Energy of an electron is measured with an uncertainty of 0.5 eV. What is the minimum
uncertainty in the time over which the measurement was made?
Ans: (a) 2.109 × 10-26 gcm/s (b) 1.316 × 10-15 s.
(2) Find the nearest neighbour distance in the following lattices
(a) Body centered cubic
(b) Face centered cubic and
(c) A diamond lattice
3a a 3a
Ans: (a) (b) (c)
2 2 4
(3) For a particle that ha.s a mass of 2 g and energy 1.5 kT, determine de-Broglie wave
length at 300 K. kT = 1.24 eV.
Ans: 6.0699 × 10-25cm.
(4) The antenna of an AM radiostation transmitter radiates 10 kW of power at 1250 KHz.
Calculate
(a) Energy of each radiated photon
(b) Number of photons radiated per second
Ans: (a) 8.283 × 10-28 J. (b) 1.207 × 1031.
(5) At 300 K, what percentage of the valence electrons in a cm3 of silicon are located in the
conduction band? Repeat for 500 K.
Ans: 7.51 × 10-12%, 1.805 × l0-7%
3kT
(6) The average energy of a free electron is given by E = where k is Boltzmann
2
constant, T is temperature in degree Kelvin. Determine
(a) Velocity of electron
(b) The de Brogue wave length in m and Å
(c) Momentum at 300 K
Ans: (a) 3.694 × l03 cm/s (b) 1.969 × 10-12 m, 0.01969 Å (c) 33.64 × 10-25 gcm/s.
(7) Find the resistivity of a silicon sample at 300 K if it is doped with a pentavalent
impurity such that there is one impurity atom for 107 silicon atoms. n = 1350 cm2/Vs,
p = 480 cm2/Vs.
Ans: 0.9255  cm.
(8) A Ge sample is doped with 1014 As atoms/cm3 and 7 × 1013 Boron atoms/cm3 at 300 K.
The intrinsic resistivity at this temperature equals 60  cm. Determine the total
conduction current density, if an electric field of 2 V/cm is applied. Assume n = 3900
cm2/Vs and p = 1900 cm2 /Vs.
Ans: 54.5 mA/cm2.
(9) Show that, the ratio of maximum resistivity to intrinsic resistivity of a semiconductor is
given by
 max n +  p
=
i 2 n  p
106 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

(10) Calculate the intrinsic resistivity of Ge at 300 K. If a donor type impurity is added to the
extent of 1 atom per 108 Ge atoms, calculate the resistivity, n =3900 cm2/Vs, p =
1900 cm2/Vs, ni = 2.5 × 1013 cm-3.
Ans: 43.05  cm, 3.6208  cm.
(11) A silicon sample of length 2 cm and area of cross-section 2 mm2 at 300 K is doped with
1017 atoms/cm3 of As and 9 × 1016 cm-3 of Boron. Compute the specimen's resistance
and compare the contribution of electron and holes to the total conductivity. Assume n
= 1350 cm2/Vs and p = 480 cm2/Vs.
 
Ans: 0.9247; n  1 n = 1.25 × 1012
 p
(12) A Si sample isjdoped with 1015 Boron atoms and a certain number of shallow donors.
The Fermi-level is 0.33 eV above Ei at 300 K. What is the donor concentration?
Take ni as 1.5 × 1010 cm-3.
Ans: 5.878 × 1015 cm-3.
(13) In a semiconductor at room temperature (300 K) the intrinsic carrier concentration and
resistivity are 1.5 × l016/m3 and 2 × 103  m respectively. It is converted to an extrinsic
semiconductor with a doping concentration of l020/m3. For extrinsic semiconductor
calcualte
1. Minority carrier concentration,
2. Resistivity,
3. Shift in Fermi-level due to doping and
4. Minority carrier concentration when its temperature is raised to a value at which
intrinsic carrier concentration doubles. Assume n = p, kT = 26 m eV at room
temperature.
Ans: (a) 2.25 × 1012 m-3 (b) 6.49 × 10-3  m (c) 0.2289 eV (d) 9 × 1012 m-3.
(14) A Ge sample is properly contacted and oriented in a 5 kG magnetic field as in Fig. 1.40.
The current is 4 mA. The sample dimensions are w = 0.25 mm, t = 50 m and L = 2.5
mm. The following measurements are made. VAB = -2.5 mV and VCD = 170 mV. Find
the type and concentration of majority carriers and its mobility.
Ans: n-type, n0 = 9.98 × 1016 cm-3, 2943.39 cm2/Vs.
(15) Boron is diffused into an intrinsic Si sample giving the acceptor distribution shown in
Fig. Ex.1.15. Sketch the equilirbiuin energy band diagram and show the direction of the
electric field.

Fig. Ex.1.15
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 107
(16) An n-type silicon bar is doped uniformly by phosphorus atoms to a concentration of 4.5
× 1015 cm-3. The bar has cross-section of 1 mm2 and length of 10 cm. It is illuminated
uniformly for regions x < 0 as shown in Fig. Ex. 1.16.

Fig. Ex.1.16

Assume optical generation rate 1021 EHP cm-3 s -1 for this case. The hole lifetime and
electron lifetime are equal and is equal to 1 s . Evaluate the hole and electron diffusion
currents and electron drift current at x = 34.6 m. Given Dp = 12 cm2/s Dn = 30 cm2/s q
= 1.6 × 10-19 C, kT/q = 26 mV.
Ans: Ip diff = 2.043 mA, In diff = -4.665 mA. In drift = 2.622 mA
(17) A silicon sample is doped uniformly with 1015 As atoms cm-3 and has p = 1 s
(a) Determine the photo generation rate that will produce 2 × 1013 excess EHPs cm-3 in
the steady-state.
(b) Calculate the conductivity of the sample and the p'osition of the electron and hole
quasi Fermi levels in the steady-state at 300 K.
Assume µn = 1350 cm2 /Vs, µp = 480 cm2/Vs and ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm-3.
Ans: (a) 2 × l019 EHP/cm3s (b) 0.22 (cm)-1, Fn - Ei = 0.289eV Ei - Fp = 0.1798 eV
(18) A homogeneous semiconductor bar is illuminated uniformly by a penetrating light that
generates EHPs at a constant rate GL cm-3 s-1. Assuming low-level injection,
(a) Calculate the excess carrier concentration as a function of time if light is switched
on at t = 0
(b) Determine the steady-state values of electron and hole concentrations and show that
the photo conductivity () of the sample is given by q(µn + µp) GLp.
(19) A Germanium sample doped with 1017 cm-3 donors at 300 K is optically excited such
that gop = 1020 EHP/(cm3 - s) and n = p = 10s. Find the separation between quasi
Fermi-levels.
Ans: Fn - Fp = 0.3118 eV.
(20) A sample of n-type silicon has dark resistivity of 1 kcm at 300 K. The sample is
illuminated uniformly to generate 1021 EHPs cm-3 s-1. The hole lifetime is 1 µs.
Calculate the sample resistivity and the percentage change in resistivity after
illumination. Assume µn = 1350 cm2/Vs. µp = 480 cm2/Vs and ni = 1.5 × 1010 cm-3.
Ans: 1.0034 k  cm, 0.3411%
(21) A semiconductor (n-type) bar is injected at one end by minority carrier holes and an
electric field of 100 V/cm is uniformly applied along the length of the bar that move the
holes a distance of 0.1 cm in 3µs. Determine
(a) The drift velocity of holes
(b) The diffusion constant of holes at T = 300 K
Ans: (a) 3.33 × 104 cm/s (b) 8.67 cm2/s.
108 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

(22) Given a Ge sample that has at 300 K ni = 2.5 × 1013 cm-3, µn = 3900 cm2/Vs and µp =
1900 cm2/Vs. Determine all the possible values of hole and electron densities that cause
the conductivity of a semiconductor to be equal to the intrinsic conductivity.
(23) A hole current of 10-5 A/cm2 is injected into the side (x = 0) of a long n-silicon.
Assuming that holes flow only by diffusion and that at very large values of x, the
distribution of excess holes decays to zero, Determine
(a) The steady-state excess hole density at x = 0
(b) Hole current density at x = 100 µm. Given µp = 480 cm2/Vs µn = 1350 cm2/Vs and
the lifetime of holes is 2.5 µs
Ans: (a) 2.794 × 1010 cm-3 (b) 1.667 × 10-6 A/cm2.
(24) Draw the equilibrium energy band diagram of an n-type silicon at 300 K with following
doping profile.

ND(x)

0 →L
Fig. Ex.1.24

(25) In a p-type semiconductor the Fermi-level lies 0.4 eV above the valence band. If the
concentration of acceptor atoms is trippled find the new position of Fermi-level.

▪ Review Questions

(1) What is resistivity range of semiconductors?

(2) What are the advantages of silicon over other semiconductor materials?
(3) How are semiconductors classified?
(4) Compare classical mechanics and quantum mechanics. Why is quantum mechanics used in
the study of semiconductors?

(5) Explain Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

(6) What are the postulates of quantum mechanics?
(7) Write one dimensional time independent Schrodinger wave equation. List few of its
applications.
(8) Explain tunneling mechanism with the help of quantum mechanics.
(9) Explain Fermi-Dirac, Maxwell-Boltzmann and Bose-Einstein statistics.
(10) How do Fermi-level position vary with doping in a semiconductor?
(11) Define photon and phonon.
(12) What are the different types of bonds that exist in solids?
(13) Distinguish between single crystalline and poly crystalline materials.
(14) Define the following terms related to crystal structure.
 Semiconductor Materials and Physics 109
(a) Unit cell
(b) Primitive unit cell,
(c) Co-ordination number,
(d) Tetrahedral radius,
(e) Lattice constant and
(f) Packing efficiency.
(15) What are different cubic crystal structures?
(16) How are crystal planes and directions designated?
(17) Explain the formation of energy bands in carbon.
(18) Distinguish between the energy band diagrams of metals, semiconductors and insulators.
(19) Distinguish between direct and indirect bandgap semiconductors.
(20) Explain effective mass.
(21) Explain the conduction process by holes.
(22) Draw the energy band diagram of
(a) Intrinsic semiconductor,
(b) n-type semiconductor and
(c) p-type semiconductor at 0 K and at 300 K. Show the donor/acceptor levels also.
(23) Explain Fermi-Dirac distribution function. Plot it as a function of energy (E) for different
temperatures.
(24) Explain graphical estimation of carrier concentration in a semiconductor.
(25) Derive the relation nopo = ni2
(26) Derive no = ni e( E − E )/ kT
F i
po = ni e( E − E )/ kT
i F

(27) Explain temperature dependence of intrinsic carrier concentration with mathematical model
and figure.
(28) List values of ni for Si, Ge, GaAs at 300 K.
(29) Explain temperature dependence of majority carrier concentration in a semiconductor.
(30) What is the charge of n-type semiconductor? Explain.
(31) What is the use of charge neutrality equation?
(32) Show that Lp is the average distance a charge carrier diffuse before it recombines.
(33) Derive expression for conductivity of a semiconductor.
(34) Why is the conductivity of a silicon sample minimum when it is slightly p-type?
(35) Derive the expression for minimum conductivity of a semiconductor.
(36) Find expression for i/min of semiconductor.
(37) What is meant by compensation?
(38) What is thermal relaxation time?
(39) What are the scattering mechanisms in a semiconductor?
(40) Explain temperature and doping dependence of mobility.
(41) Show that the gradient in Fermi-level is zero under thermal equilibrium.
(42) Explain Hall Effect. Explain the procedure to measure majority carrier concentration and
mobility of a semiconductor specimen.
(43) Explain the variation of drift velocity with electric field for Si and GaAs.
(44) Explain the transient decay of excess carriers in a semiconductor with direct recombination.
What is minority carrier lifetime?
(45) Define quasi Fermi-level. When do they exist?
110 Semiconductor Materials and Physics

(46) What are the different recombination mechanisms?

(47) What is Auger recombination?
(48) What are the origins of recombination centres?
(49) Explain diffusion process. Derive expression for diffusion current.
(50) How do the energy band diagram, change with application of electric field?
(51) State and derive Einstein relation.
(52) Write continuity equation. What are its applications?
(53) Derive continuity equation.
(54) Derive steady-state diffusion equations.
(55) How is minority carrier mobility and diffusion constant measured? Explain with diagrams.
(56) You have a Ge device and Si device with comparable dopings. Which one can be operated
at higher temperature? Why?
(57) Show that life time is the average time a charge carrier survives without recombination
after it is generated.