FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY B.

HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY
a. IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES

CHAPTER I 1. Joseph Nicephore Niepce of France

(1816)
INTRODUCTION TO PHOTOGRAPHY  He took the world’s very first
photograph called “Heliography”
2. John W. Herschel
A. IMPORTANT TERMS  He coined the word photography.
3. William Henry Fox Talbot (1839)
1. PHOTOGRAPHY - Derived from the  He is the Father of modern
Greek word: Photography
 “Phos” or “Fos” which means “light”  He invented the Calotype (paper
and; based), which produces a negative
 “Grapho” means “Writing” or picture on a paper, the lights on the
“Graphia” meaning “to Draw” image were recorded as darks, the
 Is an art or science which deals with darks as lights.
the reproduction of images through
4. Louise Jacques Mande Daguerre (1838-
the action of light, upon sensitized
1839)
materials, with the aid of a camera and
its accessories, and the chemical  A Parisian painter and theater designer
processes involved therein. who continued the efforts of Niepce to
2. FORENSIC - Derived from the Latin perfect the photographic process.
word “Forum” which means “a market  He invented the Daguerre type or
place” where people gathered for public Daguerreotype process (metal
discussion. based) in Paris.
 When used in conjunction with other 5. Frederick Scott Archer
science it connotes a relationship to
 He pioneered the wet Collodion
the administration of justice. It is
sometimes used interchangeably with process which took place of the
the word legal. collotype known as collodion type
3. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY- is an art process.
or science of photographically documenting  Collodion process is a photographic
a crime scene and evidence for laboratory process that produced a negative
examination and analysis for purposes of image on a transparent photographic
court trial. medium, usually made in glass.
4. POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY - the 6. Edwin H. Land (1947)
application of the principles of photography  Introduced “polaroid” the one step
in relation to the police work and in the
administration of justice. photography.
5. PHOTOGRAPH - A mechanical and 7. Steve Sasson (1975)
chemical result of Photography. Picture and  An American Electrical Engineer who
photograph are not the same for a picture is invented the digital camera.
a generic term is referring to all kinds of
formed image while a photograph is an
image that can only be a product of b. IMPORTANT DATES
photography.
 1839 – the birth year of photography
  1872 – creates the first color photograph or unnecessary light from reaching the
 1988 - the arrival of true digital cameras sensitized material.
 1990 - Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the 3. LENS - is the light gathering mechanism
of the camera that collect the reflected light
first commercially available digital
coming from the object to form the image.
cameras.
4. SENSITIZED MATERIAL - composed
 1994 -The first digital cameras for the of a highly sensitized chemical compound
consumer-level market that worked with a which is capable of being transformed into
home computer via a serial cable were the an image through the action of light and
Apple Quick Take 100 camera. with some chemical processes. (Film and
Photo Paper).
c. EARLY FORMS OF CAMERAS 5. CHEMICAL PROCESS - is the process
necessary for reducing silver halides into a
1. CAMERA OBSCURA form so as a latent image and a positive
image be made resulting to what we called
Photograph.
 A box used for sketching large objects.
 It literally means “dark chamber.” CHAPTER 2
 The box contains a mirror set at 45˚
angle. SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL
 A double convex lens like in a PRINCIPLES OF FORENSIC
photographic camera is placed in the PHOTOGRAPHY
front end.
 The image of the objects is transmitted Forensic Photography also known as forensic
through the lens and appears on the imaging or crime scene photography relates to
mirror. photography undertaken within a legal context.
 The mirror reflects it upward to a It combines both science and art for the purpose
ground glass screen on the top of the of recording and preserving the initial
appearance of the crime scene and physical
box.
evidence, in order to provide a permanent record
 There it can be sketched easily. for the courts. Forensic photography and police
photography are used interchangeably.
2. CAMERA LUCIDA

• a camera lucida allows you to trace A. SIGNIFICANCE OF FORENSIC

what you see. And it does so in full PHOTOGRAPHY
daylight; there’s no need for a dark
shroud or enclosure, as with a camera 1. A picture is worth a thousand words and it is
obscura. especially true in crime scene photography
2. Photography is the basis of all crime scenes
and is carried out on priority.
C. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF
3. Forensic Photography is an integral part of
PHOTOGRAPHY trial and the judgement often is based upon
crime scene photographs to prove prima
1. LIGHT - is an electromagnetic energy that facie evidence.
travels in a form of a wave with the speed 4. It is considered as an indispensable
of 186, 000 miles per second. instrument in criminal investigation.
2. CAMERA AND ITS ACCESSORIES - a 5. It always played a vital part in criminal
light tight box designed to block unwanted investigation.
6. It acts as a tool in crime solution in bringing 7. The visual effect that results from the
offender to justice. chemical processing is dependent on the
7. Modern policing considers photography as quantity and quality of the exposing light.
more than just a way to record evidence or 8. More light will yield an opaque or black
identify a known criminal, it plays an shade on the sensitized material after
important part in all aspect of forensic development.
science. 9. Too little light will produce a transparent or
white shade.
B. IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC 10. The varying shade of gray will finally form
PHOTGRAPHY IN LAW the complete image.
ENFROCEMENT FIELD
D. USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Small objects but of great importance in a
crime committed may escape in the first 1. For Identification Purposes - Personal
phase of examination by the investigator but
Identification is considered to be the first
maybe seen and recorded on the photograph.
2. A good photograph of the scene is a application of photography is police work.
permanent record which is always available  Alphonse Bertillon was the first police
especially in court presentation, in court who utilized photography in police
proceedings fiscals and defense lawyers work as a supplementary identification
have generally never visited the scene of the in his Anthropometry system.
crime. As a general rule, take many
 Uses in different fields of a law
photographs of the crime scene and select
the best. enforcement agency, e.g., prisoners, a
3. Used as an aid by investigator to describe in person of interest, unidentified
court some of the details of the crime scene cadavers, missing person, stolen
they have investigated several months ago, properties, civilians' identification, etc.
the small details and exact locations of 2. For Record Purposes - Considered to be
object. the utmost used of photography in police
4. To assist the investigator in using
work.
photographic equipment and techniques in
effort to solve crimes. 3. For Preservation - Crime scene and other
physical evidence requires photograph for
C. PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY preservation purposes. Crime scene cannot
be retained as is for a long period of time but
1. A photograph is the mechanical and through photograph the initial condition of
chemical result of photography. the scene of the crime can be preserved
2. To produce a photograph, light is needed
properly.
aside from sensitized materials.
3. Lights reflected or radiated by a subject 4. For Court Exhibits - Almost all evidence
must reach the sensitized materials while all presented in court before formally be
other lights must be excluded. accepted requires that they satisfy the basic
4. The exclusion of all unwanted and requirements for admissibility which is
unnecessary lights is achieved by placing the relevancy and competency. A question of
sensitized material inside a camera. relevancy is usually proved by proving the
5. The amount of light on the sensitized
origin of the evidence and its relation to the
material after exposure is not immediately
visible to the eyes. case and this is usually supplemented by
6. To make the formed image visible, it must photograph of the evidence giving reference
undergo the development process. as to where it came from. Evidence
presented in court once accepted became
 known as Exhibit. Either Exhibit 1,2,3 etc. photography. Their mission is to cover all
for the defense or Exhibit A, B, C etc for the crime scenes by photographing it, gathering
prosecution. and packaging evidence, dusting and lifting
 Slide projections, comparison charts, of fingerprints, making measurements and
individual photographs and motion drawing the crime scene to scale.
picture or video coverage/presentation.  A CSS is also required to photograph
5. For Discovering and Proving - bodies at the scene and at autopsies.
Photography can extend human vision in They are non-sworn and are not
discovering and proving things. required to carry firearm.
C. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHER -Is an
6. Reproducing and Copying - With the use expert in the protosciences field. He has
of photography any number of reproductions
knowledge beyond the basics of exposure
of the evidence can be made those giving
unlimited opportunity for its examination and film development. He is rarely called to
and even allow other experts or person to a crime scene unless special photography is
examine the specimen without required, such as ultraviolet or luminol
compromising the original. photography.
7. Crime Prevention - with the use of video
camera (hidden camera) and other advanced CHAPTER 3
photographic equipment crimes are being
detected more easily and even to the extent TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
of preventing them from initially occurring. AND ITS APPLICATION TO LAW
8. Public Information – Photographs use for ENFORCEMENT AGENCY
press release, posters of wanted criminals,
crime alerts, etc. 1. PHOTOMICROGRAPHY – The art of
9. Police Training - Modern facilities are now
photographing minute objects when
being used as instructional material not only
in police training as well as in other magnified by means of a microscope and
agencies. enlarged from 10 times and up.
10. For Communication - Photograph is  Usually used in question documents and
considered to be one of the most universal Fire arm identification.
methods of communication considering that 2. PHOTOMACROGRAPHY-
no other language can be known universally
photographing of objects directly enlarged
than photograph.
on the negative and magnified from 1 to 9
E. TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHERS times.
IN LAW ENFORCEMENT  Commonly used in Personal
Identification like finger print, foot
A. LAB TECHNICIAN - is the darkroom print, palm print, tube/extension bilus.
expert. They are responsible for all film 3. MICROPHOTOGRAPHY - The process of
development, both black and white and reducing big objects or things of minute objects.
color. They also produce black & white and The photographer uses a special negative known
color enlargements, as well as 1:1. in as a microfilm to preserve the images.
addition, they are responsible for all copy 4. CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY - Deals
work and the logging and filing of all with the photographing the scene of the crime or
negatives. details of perpetuated crime.
B. CRIME SCENE SPECIALIST (CSS) - is 5. SURVEILLANCE PHOTOGRAPHY - Deals
trained in a variety of subjects, including with photographing individuals without his
 knowledge, such as the same in clandestine 11. THERMO PHOTOGRAPHY - A kind of
photography. photo where we use laser beam radiation using
6. INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY - Deals with laser beam film.
the photographing of objects visible, divisible,  The term comes from a Greek words
and invisible even with haze. “therme” meaning “heat” and
7. ULTRA-VIOLET PHOTOGRAPHY - Deals “graphos” meaning “writing” or
with the photographing objects or markings “drawing.”
which are invisible using reflected or  In modern days, thermal imaging is also
fluorescent. used in fire fighter’s operations,
 Fingerprints on multicolored surfaces surveillance, fugitive search,
 Body secretions such as urine, semen environmental, search and rescue,
and perspiration often glow when structure profiles, and etc.
illuminated by UV light. 12. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY - A kind of
 Money and other valuables can be photography applied for photo mapping. Taking
dusted or marked to identify thieves. a photograph above the subject.
 Questioned Document 13. UNDERWATER PHOTOGRAPHY -
8. X-RAY PHOTOGRAPHY - Deals with photographing things under water.
photographing hidden objects or things. 14. FINGERPRINT PHOTOGRAPHY - Deals
 A primary use of X-ray technology for with the application of macro-photography so as
law enforcement personnel is the to produces an enlargement of finger print for
screening of objects (baggage, purses, comparison purposes.
and so on) prior to their entry into a 15. FIREARM IDENTIFICATION
controlled environment such as airport PHOTOGRAPHY - Deals with the
boarding areas and schools. photographing of firearm shells and bullets. It is
 It can also be used for investigation, also where photomicrography is applied
and possible detonation of suspicious 16. QUESTION DOCUMENT
packages. PHOTOGRAPHY - Process of photographing
 Other uses of Radiography (x-ray) are document for purposes of examination and as a
as follows: Firearms injuries, Blunt substitute for duplicate copy when original is
forces trauma, certain fractures from lost and the purpose of duplicate photograph is
abuse, hanging, drowning, to establish the contents of the lost original
decomposition of body and/or Post document.
Mortem Computed Tomography 17. ARSON AND QUESTIONABLE FIRE
(PMCT). PHOTOGRAPHY - It is the willful and
9. INVESTIGATIVE PHOTOGRAPHY - Deals malicious burning of property, usually a building
with the study of the concept of photography, its or dwelling unit.
application to law enforcement or investigation 18. TRAFFIC ACCIDENT PHOTOGRAPHY -
process and the preparation of photographic Deals with the photographing of traffic incidents
evidence for court presentation. or occurrence especially in a vehicular accident.
10. MUG-SHOT PHOTOGRAPHY - Deals with
the study of photographing individuals for OTHER TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
identification purposes.
1. SPECTOGRAPH– A process use in  It is valuable for showing an overview
determining the kind of metals submitted for of the crime scene and should be
examination. considered in major cases.
 Spectroscopic techniques are widely  While video cannot replace still
used by forensic scientists to interrogate photograph, due to its lower resolution.
atomic and/or molecular composition of Videotaping does provide an easily
questioned and known samples. The understandable viewing medium that
main objectives of forensic analysis are: shows the layout of the crime scene and
a. Identification/characterization of the location of evidence.
questioned samples.
b. Determination of source
correspondence between two or
CHAPTER 4
more samples related to crime.
 General Application of Spectrograph in LIGHT IN FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
Criminal Investigation
a. Document examination, A. SIGNIFICANCE OF LIGHT IN
differences between inks. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
b. Paints, varnishes, lacquers and
Effectively utilizing light will create an
resins.
image that will give forensic investigators
c. Dust traces
the ability to analyze the details of a scene
d. Bullet traces
and evidence.
e. Textiles and fabrics
f. Bombs and metallic fragments  Good lighting makes the characteristics of
g. Glass subjects visible and can make the nearly
h. Explosive residue invisible to visible state.
i. Tools and implements  Using artificial light must be carefully
2. FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY considered.
(photographing with flash) – It is a
technique applied whereby exposures are B. NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS
made with illumination from one or more OF LIGHT
photograph.
3. FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY – includes 1. LIGHT – is a form of radiant
methods of photographing the scenes of electromagnetic energy which travel in wave
crimes, searches, investigatory motion.
experimentation, living substances, and  It is a wavelength of radiant energy
similar evidence. It makes use of both capable of visual detection.
recording and investigative techniques.  It is a radiant energy which emanates
4. Scientific Photography – is defined as from heat.
photography aimed at showing things about  It travels at a speed of about 186,000
the world that cannot be seen by the unaided miles per second in air or 300,000
eye. km/second in an open space but they
5. Videography – Its is the process of differ in wavelength and frequency.
capturing videos or moving images using  It can be bud or reflected.
electronic media.
  It takes about 8 minutes for the light in the principle of shadow
to travel from the sun to reach the photography.
earth. 2. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet) -
2. WAVELENGTH - is the distance from Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400
crest (highest point) to the wave of the next nanometers.
succeeding crest.  It is designed to photograph
3. FREQUENCY - is the number of waves fingerprints in multi colored
background, documents that are
passing in a given point in one second.
altered, decipherment of erase
writing and developing invisible
C. THEORIES OF LIGHT
writing. It is commercially known as
“Black Light”.
1. Wavelength Theory (James Maxwell) - 3. Visible/White Light - It refers to the type of
The wavelength of light is the most radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700
pertinent, particularly in the design of millimicrons.
lenses.  Designed for ordinary photographing
 It is the best illustrated by dropping of a purposes.
stone in a pond of still water. 4. Infra-red (Beyond the Red) - Considered
 The series of wave which travels outward as the photographic rays with the longest
from the point are just like light waves that wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000
the travels in all direction from a source with millimicrons.
equal velocity.  It is designed to take photograph of
 The theory maybe used to illustrate over-written documents, obliterated
writing, and charred documents or for
reflection, interference, refraction,
black out photography. It is
diffraction and polarization.
sometimes referred to as heat rays.
2. Quantum Theory (Max Plank) -Theorized
that light might be made up of little bundles E. TYPES OF LIGHT
of energy named QUANTA.
 A quantum of light is called photon. Lights can largely be classified into visible and
When a photon strikes a light invisible light.
sensitive surface, it gives energy 1. Visible Light - Is the type of light that
within a metal explain the photo produces different sensation when reach the
electronic current. human eye. It is the type of light, which is
 It is used to explain x-radiation in the capable of exciting the retina of the human
electromagnetic spectrum. eye. Light with a wavelength of 400-700 nm
2. Invisible Light - Lights in which their
wavelength is either too short or too long to
D. PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS excite the retina of the human eye i.e., X-
ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red lights.
1. X-ray - Light with the wavelength between
01 to 30 millimicrons. F. COLORS OF LIGHT
 It is produced by passing an electric
current through a special type of  WHITE LIGHT - is the sum total of all
vacuum tube. It was incidentally colors of the rainbow while
discovered by Conrad Wilhelm  BLACK - is the absence of all colors.
Roentgen. This type of light works
NOTE: If we will divide the wavelength of  The light reflected from the top surface of
visible light into three, we will produce the such a film undergoes a reversal or phase
primary colors. but light reflected from the bottom of the
surface does not undergo this type of
1. PRIMARY COLORS change.
 Red 6. ABSORPTION - The nature of light to be
 Green absorbed in the process of dark surface.
 Blue 7. FILTRATION - The character of light to be
2. SECONDARY COLORS altered from its colorless into visible state.
 Yellow
8. POLARIZATION - The process by which
 Magenta/Purple
the vibration of light is confined to a definite
 Cyan
3. Complementary colors - colors opposite plane, and the speed of light can be
one another on the color wheel. It can be measured.
used very effectively in visual art, including 9. FLUORESCENCE -These happen when
photography. molecules of the fluorescent material absorb
energy at one wavelength and radiate it at
G. THE RAT LAW another wavelength.
Once light encounters an interference of some
kind, its fate can be separated into three general I. SOURCES OF LIGHT
categories: The RAT LAW;
1. NATURAL LIGHT - are those light which
A. Reflected, come to existence without the intervention
B. Absorbed, and of man e.g., Sunlight, moonlight and
C. Transmitted. starlight.

H. PROPERTIES OF LIGHT A. Bright Sunlight - object in an open space

casts a deep and uniform shadow and the
1. REFLECTION - It is the deflection or object appears glossy.
bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.
B. Hazy Sunlight - object in an open space
a. Regular cast a transparent or bluish shadow. This
 Happens when light hits a flat, smooth is due to thin clouds that cover the sun.
and shiny surface.
b. Irregular of diffused C. Dull Sunlight - object in an open space cast
 Occurs when light hits a rough or no shadow due to thick clouds covering the
sun.
uneven but glossy object.
2. REFRACTION - The bending of light a. Cloudy Bright- Objects in an open space
when passing from one medium to another. cast no shadow but objects at far distance
3. DIFFRACTION - The bending of light are clearly visible.
when it hits a sharp edge opaque object. b.Cloudy dull- Objects in an open space cast
4. RECTILINEAR - The nature of light that no shadow and visibility of distant objects
normally travels in straight line. are already limited.
5. INTERFERENCE - Color can be produce 2. ARTIFICIAL LIGHT - otherwise known
by interference of light waves in thin film as man-made light e.g., fluorescent bulb,
like in soap bubbles or a film of oil floating incandescent bulb and photoflood lamp.
in water.
A. Continuous radiation
1. Ultraviolet Lamp- - It comes in a variety
a. Photoflood lamp - is likewise known as of shapes, sizes and power. Some units are
Reflectorized light or Spot light. It is a light portable battery operated and are easily
with a reflector at the back which focus the carried and can meet the rugged and
light to the object the common wattages of rigorous demand for field work.
this lamp are 500 watts. 2. Laser (Light Amplification through
b.Fluorescents Lamp - are tube lamps in Stimulated Emission of Radiation) - By
which the walls are coated with fluorescent illumination certain items with laser, they
powders with both ends is mounted with a would fluoresce or could be made to stand
holder that serves as the reflector. This is out in sharp contrast with their background.
commonly used by everybody more than it  This was especially significant in
is used in photographing. locating dried biological stains.
c. Incandescent bulb - are bulb with a wire 3. Alternative Light Source (ALS) - Far more
filament connecting two wires which inexpensive alternative to Forensic Laser.
sustain the electrical charge that produces  It uses a variety of band pass filters to
the light. Everybody likewise commonly provide a high intensity beam of a non-
uses this although it is more expensive in coherent light.
terms of electrical consumptions.
d.Ultra-violet Lamp K. KINDS PF OBJECT AS TO HOW THEY
e. Infra-red Lamp BEHAVE TO LIGHT

B. Short Duration type 1. Transparent object/materials – allow light

to easily pass through them, and other side
a. Flash bulb - are chemical lamps, as it may be clearly seen.
generates lights by the rapid combination 2. Translucent object/materials – allow light
of metal in oxygen. The bulb can be used to pass through but distorts the light during
only once as the bulb is busted when fired the passage, and the object may not be
electrically. There are thin filaments inside clearly distinguished.
the bulb with two electrical contacts. When 3. Opaque object/materials – absorb light;
the current flows through the filament, it greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the
becomes incandescent and ignites the object on the other side is very difficult, if
explosive primer that ignites the aluminum not impossible.
foil that burns, giving flash of tense light.
b.Electronic Flash -produces light by an CHAPTER 5
instantaneous electrical in charges between
two electrodes in a gas filled glass bulbs. CAMERA AND ITS ACCESSORIES
The electrical energy for the discharge is
kept in capacitor or condenser. It usually  CAMERA - Is a light tight box with light
ranges from 1/300 second and 1/5000 gathering device and a means of blocking
second, and because of this, subject in fast unwanted or unnecessary light from
motion can be arrested or stopped in the reaching the sensitized material.
photographs.
A. TYPES OF CAMERAS
J. FORENSIC LIGHT SOURCES
1. Camera Obscura
2. Camera Lucida
Applied to a wide variety of relatively 3. View Finder Type – it is considered as the
inexpensive light sources which use filtered smallest and the simplest type of camera.
white light.
4. View or Press type – is considered the
biggest and expensive type of camera, used
for movie making B. ESSENTIAL PARTS OF A CAMERA
5. Polaroid Still -This camera is restricted in
its uses but ideal in instant photograph 1. Light Tight Box/Body – a box designed
when there is no requirement for to keep light out and serve as a frame to
enlargements. hold other parts.
6. Underwater Camera - Designed for 2. Lens – designed to collect or to focus the
underwater photography. reflected light from an object to form an
7. Wide View angle Camera - A camera with image on the film.
a wide-angle lens that produces a  A disc of transparent glass generally
rectangular image that is designed for bounded by two special surfaces capable
landscape photography and architectural
of forming image.
photography.
8. Panoramic Camera - Used for 3. Shutter – designed to control the time
landscaping photography. It is easy to use during which the light reaches the film.
by encompassing a 120®, 180®, or 360®  A device that opens to uncover the
view of one exposure. film to make an exposure for an
9. Still Video Camera - Images can be stored accurately time intervals then close
in video tapes equipment with a floppy automatically.
disc, a disc that can hold about 50 images  An adjustable mechanism that
or more.
regulates the amount of light reaching
10. Reflex Camera
a. Single Lens Reflex Camera – it is a the film by varying the length of time.
type of camera best suited for police  Light is allowed to be recorded on the
work due to its interchangeability of film.
the lens  This is a control by which you can
b. Twin Lens Reflex Camera – A type of determine how long in time, the lens
camera with dual lens, one for focusing
will remain open for light to be
and the other for forming the image.
 PARALLAX - The difference between recorded on the film.
what is seen through the viewfinder and  Two types of ring control: Mechanical
what is exactly recorded on the film. and electronic.
11. Digital camera (or digicam) - is a camera  Remember: If the Shutter speed is
that encodes digital images and videos controlled electronically there is a
digitally and stores them for later
considerable drain on camera batteries
reproduction. Most cameras sold today are
digital, and digital cameras are incorporated when using long time.
into many devices ranging from PDAs and 4. Holder of the sensitized material –
mobile phones (called camera phones) to located at the opposite side of the lens
vehicles. designed to hold firmly the sensitized
a. 1975 Kodak digital camera prototype material to prevent the formation of the
- Created in 1975 by Steve Sasson, an multiple or blurred image
engineer at Kodak, the first ever digital 5. View finder – designed to determine the
camera was a fairly rudimentary affair field of view of the camera or the extent
compared to what we use today. of the coverage of the given lens.
b. 1994 Apple QuickTake 100 - The first
digital cameras for the consumer-level C. MAIN PARTS OF CAMERA IN
market that worked with a home DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY
computer via a serial cable were the
Apple Quick Take 100 camera.
1. Camera lens – A lens is merely a carefully film by varying the length of time light is
ground or molded piece of transparent material allowed to pass through the lens.
that refracts light rays in such a way as to form 7. Shutter Release Button - Part of the camera
an image.
which when pressed will keep the shutter in
2. Aperture – an aperture is the opening within a
lens that controls how much light hits the open position.
imaging sensor. 8. View Finder or Window - A viewing
3. Camera’s image sensor – an image sensor is a instrument attached to a camera, used to
solid-state device, the part of the camera’s obtain proper composition.
hardware that captures light and converts what 9. Self-Timer - The time setting of the camera
you see through a viewfinder or LCD monitor – this is automatically operated to allow the
into an image.
photographer to participate in photo taking.
4. Camera shutter – In photography and digital
photography application, the shutter is the 10. Film Holder - It holds the film firmly inside
device on the camera that opens and closes to the camera. It is always located at the
control how long the focal plane is exposed to opposite side of the lens.
light. 11. Accessory Light Shoe or Hot Shoe - It is
5. Focusing control – focusing is an integral part where the flash bulb is inserted for indoor
of any camera operation. Whether you are using photography.
a basic point-and-shoot model, or something
12. Flash Terminal - It is where flash bulb cord
that enable you to fine-tune your focusing,
picking the right mode and getting the is plugged for synchronization to the
sharpness where you want it is the difference camera.
between a poor image and a stunning one. 13. ISO/ASA/DIN dial - A camera device in
which when adjusted it will conform to the
D. PARTS OF CAMERA sensitivity of the film to light.
14. Exposure Counter or Frame Counter - A
1. Lens - A specially shaped of glass which device indicating the number of exposures
reflects light from outside onto the back of made.
the camera and create a reverse, upside 15. Depth of Field Scale - It will estimate the
down image on the film at the back of the distance between the nearest and farthest
camera. object in the apparent sharp focus when the
2. Focusing Ring - Moves the lens back and lens focusses at a given point.
forth which allows the photographer to 16. Distance Scale - A device that shows the
create a sharp image of the subject. approximate distance from the optical center
3. Diaphragm or Aperture (Lens opening) - of the lens to the point of focus on the
A small opening in a camera usually circular object.
in shape and usually variables in form iris of 17. Film Rewind Crank - A device use in film
diaphragm that regulates the intensity of rewinding.
light which passes through the lens. 18. Film Rewind Lock - A device that secures
4. Film Advance Lever - A part of camera the film for any accidental rewinding.
that is twisted to advance the film inside and 19. Back Cover Release Knob - A device used
check the number of exposures. in opening the back cover for film reloading.
5. Shutter Speed Dial - It will control the 20. Lens Lock Release Lever - A device used
length of time when light is allowed to strike to secure the lens.
the sensitized material.
6. Shutter - An adjustable mechanism that E. LENS
regulates the amount of light reaching the
 than twice the diagonal half of the
The basic function of a camera lens is to negative.
“gather” light rays from a subject, form ad c. Lonor Telephoto Lens (long focus
focuses those rays into an image, and protect lens) - with focal length longer than
twice the diagonal half of the
this image onto film inside the camera.
negative. Best used in long distance
photographing but with narrow area
I. TWO MAIN TYPES OF LENSES coverage.
ACCORDING TO SHAPE: 2. Relative Aperture – the light gathering
power of the lens expressed in F-
1. Convergent/Positive/Convex Lens number.
 It is always thicker at the center and a. Depth of Field – is the distance
measured from the nearest to the
thinner at the sides.
farthest object in apparent sharp
 Light passing through it are bended focus when the lens
toward each other on the other side b. Hyperfocal distance - Is the
of lens meeting at a point. nearest distance at which when a
 It produces a real image on the lens is focused with a given
opposite side of the lens or where particular diaphragm opening will
gives the maximum depth of field.
light is coming from.
3. Focusing - is the setting of the proper
distance in order to form a sharp image.
2. Divergent/Negative/Concave Lens The one that controls the degree of
 It is always thinner at the center and sharpness of the object.
thicker at the sides.
 Light passing through it are bended 1. Depth of Focus or Focal Range
away from each other as if coming  The maximum permissible within which
from a point. the film may be without exceeding the
 It produces a virtual image on the circle of confusion in order to produce
same side of the lens or where light the image sharp.
is coming from. 2. Circle of Confusion
 Overlapping circle patches of light
II. LENS CHARACTERISTICS representing each patch of light on the
subject.
1. FOCAL LENGTH - is the distance  Represents unsharp images, but the
measured from the optical center of the human eyes see them as acceptably
lens is set to focus at infinite position.
sharp.
As according to focal lenses may be
classified as: 3. Angle of View
a. Wide Angle or Short Focus - with  The view of the subject subtended by two
focal length not longer than the lines emerging the corners of the film
diagonal half of the negative. extending to the center of the lens.
Useful in taking photograph at 4. Types of focus
short distance with wider area 1. Scale Bed Type or focusing scale
coverage.
b. Normal or Medium Focus (35mm  The distances correspond to the
to 70mm) - with focal length distance from the camera lens to the
approximately equal but not longer subject.
  To focus with this method, one has to  This is corrected from some kind of
use measuring device and actually lens defect but not to astigmatism
measure the distance of the lens of the defects.
camera to the subject. 3. Achromatic Lens
 Whatever distance was measured, will  A lens which is partly corrected for
be setting of the marker or pointer of achromatic aberration.
focus. 4. Anastigmatic Lens
2. Micro prism or range finder type  Lens free from astigmatic and other
 These are finely etched prisms which types of lens defect.
break up the image; they are brought  It has the ability to focus vertical or
together as you focus. horizontal lines at the same time.
a. Split Image – Two prisms which 5. Process Lens
splits your image in half as you focus  A saucer-corrected lens for
both halves rejoins to form as clear astigmatism.
image.  It has a better color correction and has
b. Co-Incident Image – Usually use on the ability to produce the best
compact cameras with fixed lens. definition of image in the
3. Ground glass type photographs.
 A ground glass screen is a matt glass. 6. Fixed Focus Lens
The whole image on this screen will  A lens used in all fixed focus camera.
progressively become sharp.  Basically, it has short focal length and
 It is found at the back of the camera greater depth of field.
or in the case of modern cameras, also
couple with the viewfinder. IV. SPECIAL TYPES OF LENSES
 The point of image is where the image
is sharpest. 1. Macro Lenses
 It may also be a combination of three.  The word “macro” is derived from Greek
word which means “to enlarge”.
 In photographic terms, a macro lens is
III. MAIN GROUPS OF CAMERA
designed with extended focusing
LENS capabilities to shoot a few inches from the
subject.
1. Simple Meniscus Lens  Two Main Types:
 This is usually found in simple box  One is meant to be used on a hand-held
camera comprises a single piece of tripod mounted camera and ranges from
glass with one side convex and the 40mm to about 90mm with the average
other side Concave. about 25mm.
 It is uncorrected lens and therefore  Wide angle or a lens with focal length
of 100mm or more and is designed with
suffers from inherent defects of a close-up bellows attachment of the
lenses. camera. The longer lenses give a longer
2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens image and are most suitable for static
 This is a combination of two subjects and painstaking photography.
achromatic lenses with almost the 2. Zoom Lenses
same focal length.  Allow quick adjustment to give a wide or
narrow field of vision.
  It can be moved back and forth while other  The action of the shutter is expressed in the
elements stay in place which give the same different shutter speeds which corresponds
effects as if the camera itself was moving to the length of time or duration of the
towards or away from the subject. opening to the closing of the shutter.

V. INHERRRENT LENS DEFECT I. GENERAL TYPES OF SHUTTERS

1. Astigmatism - is a form of lens defects in 1. Blade or Between the Lens Shutter/

which the horizontal and vertical axis are Central Shutter
not equally magnified. Inability of the lens
to focus both horizontal and vertical lines.  It is made up of overlapping blades powered
2. Coma - Inability of the lens to focus light by a spring.
that travels straight or lateral, thus making  Located between the aperture and the lens or
it blurred while the light reaching the lens in between the lens.
oblique is the one the is transmitted sharp.  It will give speed up to 1/500th of a second.
3. Curvature of Field = the relation of the
 They have a delayed action fitted.
images of the different point are incorrect
with respect to one another.  It is made of metal leaves and its actions
4. Chromatic Aberration - Inability of the start from the center towards the sides then
lens to focus light of varying wavelength. closes back to the center.
The lens refracts rays of short wavelength
more strongly than those of longer 2. Focal Plane Shutter
wavelength and therefore bringing blue
rays to a shorter focus than the red.
 Longitudinal Chromatic aberration -  It consists of two metal blinds that open
The inability of a lens to focus all colors progressively or made of a black cloth
(wavelengths) at same plane on the lens and generally located very near the focal
axis. plane.
 Lateral Chromatic aberration -  These shutters are preset; it has to be
Lateral displacement of color images at cocked before release.
the focal plane. Produces color fringing
of red or blue, not improved by stopping  It can be set and synchronize at all
down. speed.
5. Spherical Aberration - Inability of the
lens to focus light passing the side of the II. PRINCIPLES OF SHUTTER
lens producing an image that is sharp in SPEED, RELATIVE APERTURE
the center and blurred at the side. AND FILM SPEED
6. Distortion - Is a defect in shape not in
sharpness. It can either be Pincushion
distortion (curving inward) or Barrel 1. Shutter Speed Control
(curving outward).  It controls the length of time reduced by
7. Flares - condition of the lens producing the light ray to reach and affect the film
multiple images. inside the camera.
 The common shutter speed exhibited on
F. SHUTTER
the shutter speed dial are B2, 1, ½, ¼,
 A device that opens to uncover the fil to 1/8, 1/15, 1/30, 1/60, 1/125, 1/250,
make an exposure for an accurately timed 1/1000, 1/2000, 1/4000, 1/8000 (T/B).
intervals then close automatically.  “T” stands for time. Pressure on the
shutter release button causes the shutter
 to open. It will remain open until the  These are disc of glass or negative
shutter releases button is pressed a which when placed in front of the
second time to close it. camera lens, stop or another color of
 “B” Stands for bulb. When you press the light from passing through in striking
shutter release button with the setting the film.
“B”, the shutter is pressed down. For
long exposure, this is usually required in I. FILTER CLASSIFICATION
dim places to permit enough light to
accommodate to make satisfactory 1. Contrast
pictures. 2. Correction
2. Aperture or Diaphragm Control 3. Haze
 An adjustable mechanism device in the 4. Sky
lens assembly which control the amount 5. Polarizing Filter
of light passing through the lens to the
film. II. TYPES OF FILTERS
 Works like the pupil of the eye. It may be
enlarged or contracted. A. GENERAL TYPES
 If it is enlarged, it allows more light to
enter. 1. Optical filter- are made either of glass or
 The adjustment is done by moving the acetate. Optical filters are used primarily to
ring of diaphragm towards the desired control exposing energy (visible wavelength,
size of the opening. ultraviolet, infrared rays) and the
composition of working illumination in
 It is generally represented by number
areas where sensitized materials are handled.
known as f/stops.
2. Particle or solution filter- is used in special
3. Film Speed Control
photographic procedures like in infrared
 Utilized by manipulating the
luminescence.
ASA/ISO or DIN dial of the
camera.
B. OTHER TYPES OF FILTERS
 Basically, the shutter and the
f/numbers are both controlling
1. Light Balancing filter
the system of the rays of light
 A filter used to change the color
that enters.
quantity of the exposing light in
 However, the effects in making
order to secure proper color balance
photographs are different.
for artificial light films.
 In an automatic setting camera,
2. Color Compensating Filter
the camera has a sensor that
 It is used to change the over-all
reads or determines the ASA
color balance of photographic result
number of the film loaded.
obtained with color films and to
compensate for deficiencies in the
G. FILTERS
quality of exposing energy.
 Used to modify the amount of light that 3. Neutral Density Film
reaches the film.  It is being used when the light is too
bright to allow the use of desired f-
 number of shutter speed with a  It is sensitive to all colors especially to
particular film. blue and violet.
4. Polarizing Filter  It is suitable for general use in the
 It is used to reduce or minimize preparation of black and white
reflection on subjects like water photographs.
glass, and highly polished surfaces
5. Blue, yellow, and/or green filters
6. Special 18A Deep Purple Filters Classes of Ordinary Film
 It is the correct filter for ultraviolet
photography. b. Process Panchromatic Film or Short
 These are often used in Scale
photography; its short wavelength  Low in speed and high in contrast.
gives better definition of the fine c. Fine Grain Panchromatic Film of Long
details. Scale
 Permit short exposures under average
H. SENSITIZED MATERIALS lighting condition and has the
advantage of fine grain structure.
 It refers to the film and photographic d. High Speed Panchromatic Film
paper that basically composed of  It was designed originally intended for
emulsion containing Silver Halides photographing and object or subject
suspended in gelatin and coated on a under adverse lighting conditions.
transparent or reflective support. 2. Blue Sensitive Film
 A film especially treated that makes it
more sensitive too blue rays of light.
1. Film
3. Orthochromatic/Kodalith Film
 It is a cellulose tape or plate where
 Sensitive to all colors except red.
silver salts are suspended capable of
 Good for fingerprint photography or
recording light.
document (high contrast).
 Its primary function is to record the
4. Minicopy Film
image that is focused upon it by the
 Film with limited enlargement
lens of the camera.
capability.
2. Photographic Papers
5. Polaroid film
 A type of light sensitized material that
 Contains chemicals for developing and
produces a positive result or
fixation.
photographs after development
which is final result of photography.  A special type of sensitized material
 A material suspended with an that produces a photograph
immediately after exposure.
emulsion.
6. Color Film
 All film ending in “COLOR”.
I. FILM  Types of color film
a. Color Negatives – for prints, ends
A. KINDS OF FILM in word “COLOR”
1. Ordinary/Panchromatic Film b. Color Transparency – for slides,
ends in the word “CHROME”.
7. Color Infra-red Film emulsion layer once it has already passed
 A special type of film which is sensitive through.
to infra-red radiation. 2. Anti-Curl Backing - this layer stabilizes the
 It is also sensitive to violet and blue- laminate to prevent it from curling.
green. 3. Adhesion Layer -this layer is used to bond
 In is useful in penetrating haze because different layers together.
of its longer wavelength. 4. Film Base - this is a transparent layer that
 In investigative photography, it is useful supports the image.
in laboratory analysis of questionable 5. Emulsion - this is the most important layer;
documents. it contains the silver halide crystals that react
 In the discovery of old or faded tattoos or when the film is exposed to light, causing a
areas where small objects are hidden latent (unseen) image.
under the skin, and in the construction of 6. Gelatin Protective Coating - also known as
camera traps. the anti-scratch layer. They serve as a
8. X-ray Film support to the emulsion.
 A material which is sensitive to x-ray
region of electromagnetic spectrum. D. TYPES OF FILMS ACCORDING TO
SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY
B. GENERAL TYPES OF EMULSIONS
Spectral sensitivity - is the responsiveness of
1. Monochromatic Film the film emulsion to the different wavelength of
the light course.
 Because of its limited color sensitivity,
has no use in regular photography
 It is used primarily for recopying. 1. Blue Sensitive Film – Sensitive to ultra-
2. Orthochromatic Films violet rays and blue light only.
 These are sensitive to ultra-violet, 2. Orthochromatic Film - Sensitive to ultra-
violet, blue, green and yellow portions violet rays and blue light only.
of the spectrum. 3. Panchromatic film – sensitive to ultra-
 They do not accurately reproduce the violet radiation to blue, green or all colors.
relative brightness of the subject of a a. Process Panchromatic film - permit short
subject as seen by the naked eye. exposures under average lighting condition
 It is available in sheet film only and it is and has the advantage of the grain
not used in regular police photography. structure.
3. Panchromatic films b. Grain Panchromatic film - High Speed
 These are sensitive to all color of the Panchromatic film designed originally for
visual spectrum to assist in the selection photographing object under adverse
of the correct film for any kind of work. lighting condition.
 These are divided based on color 4. Infra-red Film – sensitive to ultra-violet
sensitivity. rays, to blue, green red light and infra-red
rays.
C. SIX LAYERS OF THE FILM
E. GRANULARITY OR GRAININESS
1. Gelatin Anti-Halation Layer - this layer
prevents light from passing back through the
  This refers to the size of the metallic silver 2. Medium-speed films - From about ASA
grains that are formed after the development 100 to 250, a film falls between slow and
of an exposed film. fast.
 The sizes of the metallic silver grains are 3. Fast films - From ASA 250 to 400 is the
dependent on the emulsion speed of the film fast speed range.
and the type of developing solution that is 4. Superfast films - There are only a few
used in the processing. superfast films in the ASA 1000 to 3200
 The rule is: the lower the emulsion speed range.
rating, the finer the grain and conversely, the H. COLOR FILMS
higher the emulsion speeds rating of the
film, the bigger the grains.
A color film is a multi-layer emulsion coated on
 Likewise, a film developer will produce a
the same support or base. The top emulsion is
finer grain than a paper developer when used
sensitive to blue light only.
for film processing.
I. IMPORTANT TERMS
F. FILM SPEED (Emulsion Speed)
Emulsion Speed - refers to the degree of a. Latent image - The invisible image left by
sensitivity of the film to light. the action of light on photographic film or paper.
When processed, the latent image becomes a
1. ASA (American Standards Association) -
visible image, either as a negative, or as a
this is expressed in arithmetic value system.
The bigger the number the more sensitive the positive black-and-white print or color
film is. transparency.
2. DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) - expressed
in Logarithmic value system. Used in the b. Contrast - It is the degree of difference
same principle as the ASA. between the darkest tone and the lightest tone in
3. ISO (International Standard Organization) a negative, print, or slide. The darkest tone may
- expressed as combination of ASA and DIN be black, and the lightest may be pure white,
rating. depending on the subject, lighting, exposure, and
development.

c. Density- In a negative or slide density relates

The different emulsion speed ratings are: to the amount of developed silver (or dye) in any
ASA DIN ISO area, and is a measure of the “light-stopping
12 12° 12/12° power” of that area.
25 15° 25/15°
50 18° 50/18° II. PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER
100 21° 100/21°
200 24° 200/24° It is that sensitized material that will record the
400 27° 400/27° visible image in the final development and
800 30° 800/30° become the photograph.

G. CLASSIFICATION OF FILMS TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS

A. According to Emulsion Used (Silver
1. Slow films - These range from ASA 25 (or halides content)
lower) to approximately ASA 80.
 1. Silver Chloride paper - used for contact  Contrast Range or Grade - In black and
printing, the size of the positive print is the white printing, it is often necessary to adjust
same as the size of the negative used. the paper contrast so they can yield a natural
Sensitivity to light is low and give blue- scene result from negatives with density
black tones when properly developed. range that are either too high or too low.
2. Silver Bromide paper - used projection, Some papers are available in several contrast
printing and enlarging process. This is one ranges or grades while others have built-in
of the most ideal photo papers used for contrast control affected by the use of a filter
police photography. Will give a black tone on the enlarging lens or one the enlarger
when properly developed. light source.
3. Silver Chloro-bromide paper - used both
1. Numbers 0 to 1 are used in over-exposed
for projection and contact printing. Slow
or low contrast negatives.
emulsion.
4. Variable contract paper - combines the  Velox No. 0 - used for printing
contrast range in one paper it uses a special extremely contrast negative or
chloro-bromide emulsion that produces extremely exposed film.
varying contrast responses upon exposure to  Velox No. 1 - used for high contrast
different colors of light. negative (over exposed film)
2. Number 2 are used in normal exposed or
B. According to Physical Characteristics normal contrast negatives.

B.1. Weight 3. Numbers 3 to 5 are used in under-exposed

or high contrast negatives.
1. Light weight - designed for high flexibility and a. Velox No. 3 - used for negative with
when paper thickness is not of consideration. weak contrast (under exposed)
Intended for purposes, which involves folding. b. Velox No. 4 - used to provide
2. Single Weight - papers used for small prints or sufficient contrast to compensate for
which are need to be mounted on solid and fine very thin or weak negatives. It is
details necessary in the production. Used in useful imprinting which high contrast
ordinary photographic purposes. is desired.
3. Double weight - generally used for large prints c. Velox No. 5 - for flat negative that are
because they stand up under rough treatment. unprintable.

B.2. Surface Texture I. CHEMICAL PROCESSING

 Chemical Processing - After the exposure
1. Glossy paper - designed for fine details and of the film to light in the picture taking or
brilliant image formation.
the photographic paper during printing, the
2. Semi-mate paper - obscure the fine details
next step would generally be chemical
3. Rough papers - used for large prints or
where breath rather than detail is necessary. processing. In black and white processing,
the steps are development, stop-bath, and
B.3. Color fixation. In color processing, the steps are
color development, stop fix and stabilizer.
1. White - better used in police photography.
2. Cream - preferred for pictorial effect, A. STAGES OF CHEMICAL
portraits, landscape or when warmth effect is PROCESSING
desired.
3. Buff papers - prepare for tone prints 1. DEVELOPMENT
 The process by which an invisible latent
C. According to Contrast (grade) image in an emulsion is made visible.
  In black-and-white emulsion, the image is
composed of grains of black metallic  Darkroom – A light tight room used for
silver. developing film making contact print and
 In color emulsion, the developed silver is enlargement.
replaced with cyan, yellow, and magenta  A room protected from rays of light harmful
dye. to sensitized materials, plates and papers.
 In this process, a developing agent  A Darkroom is used to process photographic
film, to make prints and to carry out other
chemically breaks down or reduces
associated tasks.
exposed silver halide crystals to form grain
 It is a room that can be made completely
of metallic silver.
dark to allow the processing of the light-
 Use of either D-76, Dektol or Universal sensitive photographic materials, including
Solution) film and photographic paper.
 It is the process necessary for reducing the
silver halides to form the image. C. TWO DISTINCT SIDES
 Elon, Hydroquenone - used as main
1. Dry Side – Enlarger side and materials that
developing agents.
must be kept away from water.
2. STOP BATH
 It halts the developer action in appropriate 2. Wet Side – Processing area, chemical, stock
moment. solutions, trays and other materials.
 Normally composed of water with little D. OTHER CHEMICALS USED:
amount of dilute acetic acid that serves as
a means to prevent contamination between
 Acetic Acid and Boric acid - serves as
the developer and the acid fixer.
neutralizer
 Can be plain water only with 28% glacial
 Sodium Sulfate - serves as the preservative
acetic acid
 Potassium Bromide - restrainer or hardener
3. FIXATION
 Sodium bicarbonate and borax powder -
 It makes the developed image permanent serves as accelerator.
when it is followed by a thorough washing.
 In this processing stage, the unexposed and E. FACTORS THAT AFFECT CHEMICAL
underdeveloped silver halide crystals are DEVELOPMENT OF THE SENSITIZED
dissolved and removed from the emulsion MATERIAL:
of the photographic material. 1. Concentration or strength of the working
 Sodium Thiosulfate (hypo) is the main solution – used mixture procedure by
fixing agent that dissolves unexposed manufacturers.
silver halides. 2. Temperature of chemical involved in the
development process
 Developing process of film – the latent
image becomes permanent and visible in a 3. Time of development
reverse way thus producing a negative. 4. Agitation of the sensitized material during
 Developing process of photo paper – the development.
permanent and visible image produces
positive print, image or photographs.
F. TWO TYPES OF FILM DEVELOPING:
B. DARK ROOM PHOTOGRAPHY
 1.Repeated use system- after each development
the solution is poured in a container for use K. General Types of Photographic Printing
again.
1. Contact Printing
2. One shot system – after development the
 The procedure of exposing photographic
solution is poured into the sink.
print materials while it is pressed in contact
with the negative being reproduced.
G. FAULTS AND REMEDY ON  This is the simplest and the most
NEGATIVES: economical method of photographic
1. Intensification – the addition of minute part printing.
of another metal usually chromium or mercury
on the top of the metallic silver formed to 2. Projection Printing or Enlarging
strengthen contrast to obtain good density. Use  This is the type of printing where the image
in under exposed negative in a negative is optically or enlarges onto a
print material for exposure to produce a
2. Reduction – the reducing of density in the
picture image. The main equipment used is
negative-overexposed negatives potassium ferry
cyanide and sodium thiosulphate or Hypo or the enlarger.
Farmer’s Reducer. Usually used in over exposed
negatives L. Enlarger Parts and Functions:

3. Increasing or decreasing development times.

1. Enlarger Head – the main working part of
4. Use of development that increase or subdues enlarger contains: Light, condenser, lens,
contrast. negative holder, the lens itself.
H. FILM PROCESSING 2. Lamp – light that passes through the negative
Film Processing - It can be carried out in trays, that exposed photo paper.
tanks, or mechanized equipment. 3.Condenser Lens – lens that spread the light
coming from the lamp of the enlarger.
 Panchromatic materials must be handled in
total darkness. Other materials like blue 4.Negative carrier – hold the negative flat and
films, panchromatic films, and printing level.
papers are handled under the safelight.
5. Lens Aperture – the opening of the lens that
I. PRINTMAKING PROCESS: control rays of light passing through it.
6. Lens – it is the one responsible in forming the
1. Printmaking – the final stage in making image coming from the negative.
photograph.
2. Enlarger – It is a machine used in making 7. Focusing Mechanism – it moves the lens up
enlargement. and down to focus the projected image.
3. Contact Printing – photograph is made through
8. Enlarger Column – it is the holder of the
direct negative and paper contact.
enlarger head and commonly serves as a rail in
controlling the height of enlarger head.
J. Factors to consider in selecting negative:
1. Sharpness 9. Elevating Control Knob – control size of
2. Density image by raising or lowering the enlarger head.
3. Contrast
10. Base Board – the support of the entire unit 1. For identification of persons,
of the enlarger. documents, fingerprints, shoe prints, and
splashes of blood.
M. Special Techniques in Printing
2. Preservation of evidence in court
1. Dodging - is the process of eliminating 3. Described better than words.
unwanted portion of the negative during 4. Proves statement.
enlarging. 5. Records things you may fail to notice
2. Cropping - is the process of omitting an
object during the process of enlarging and NOTE: Upon arrival at the crime scene,
printing. photograph the whole area before anything is
3. Vignetting - is the gradual fading of the moved. Take shots from different angles to show
image towards the side through skillful the whole area.
adjustment on the dodging board.
4. Dye toning - is the process designed in C. Photographing the Crime Scene
changing the color tone of the photograph.  There must be a series of photographs of the
5. Burning-In - refers to additional exposure crime scene to supply the maximum
on a desired portion of the negative used information and to enable the viewer to
for purposes of making a balance understand how the crime was committed.
exposure.  What are the kinds of photographs to be
taken at the scene of the crime?
N. CHEMICAL USED IN DEVELOPING
1. Over-all Photographs
2. Photographs of the Deceased
 Dektol- 1 to 1 ½ minutes 60 to 90 seconds 3. Photographs of Articles of Evidence
 D-76 - 5 to 6 minutes 4. Special Techniques
 Universal- 1 to 2 minutes 5. Photograph of the environs
 Fixing- 20 to 30 minutes 6. Photograph of the body after removal
7. Photographing the body after removal for
CHAPTER 6 identification of the victim
8. Close-up pictures of the wounds
CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY
D. SOPs in crime scene photography
Crime Scene - A place where the crime was a. Obtain photographs of the crime scene
perpetrated and physical evidence found thereat. nearly in the investigation preferably before
A. Objectives of Crime Scene Photography anything has been moved.
1. To produce a pictorial record of b.Photograph from several angles so that
everything regarding the crime. proper dimension maybe shown.
2. To help in keeping the police officer’s c. When dimensions are important, use sort of
scale (ruler) in the photography so that
memory accurately as possible as to
enlargement or reduction maybe measured.
where he finds things.
d.Record on your noted data concerning the
3. To help in securing or obtaining
photographs including directions and
confession, description and information distances from the principal objects in the
to the case. scene. Sketches maybe helpful also.
B. Importance of Crime Scene Photography e. For special equipment call on the laboratory.
E. Photography Procedures at the Crime 2. The building - The next photograph should
Scene show the building in which the crime was
1. General view or long-range view - committed. This shows whether it is a
taking an over-all view of the scene of private home, a factory, a small shop, a
the crime. It shows direction and hotel, a garage, usually two photographs will
location of the crime scene. be needed of the front and back of the
2. Medium view or mid-range view - Is building.
the taking of the photograph of the scene 3. The Entrance - This is usually the door, but
of the crime by dividing it into section. maybe a window in a house breaking
This view will best view the nature of robbery. If there is a gate and a door, take a
the crime. photograph one for each entrance.
3. Close-up view - Is the taking of 4. The Hallway - The camera now shows us
individual photograph of the evidence at what we would observe immediately after
the scene of the crime. It is design to we enter the building. It should show the
show the details of the crime. location of the other rooms or doors through
4. Extreme close up - Commonly designed which we must pass to get to the room in
in laboratory photographing using some
which the crime was committed.
magnification such as
5. The Room - This may be a bedroom, an
Photomacrography and
office or a bathroom. The most difficult
photomicrography.
problem is to include the entire scene
F. Items of Physical evidence to be sometime like in a building shot, two
Photograph photographs from the opposite corners will
 All materials which serve to establish be enough. A wide lens is used. However,
the fact that the crime has been the investigator’s note should also be
committed or the corpus delicti and carefully marked with the information.
locus criminis. 6. Close Up - The number and types of close-
 Physical evidence which would up photographs will of course depend upon
connect the suspect to the crime scene. the kind of crime.
Any mark such as fingerprint, shoe or a. a. Object Attacked
footprint, splashes of blood, hair ● This may be a person, safe cash box or a
strands, etc. display counter. The purpose of these
 Evidence relating to the manner in pictures is to show the amount and kind of
which the crime committed or modus damage, and the method of attack.
operandi of the criminal. b. The Weapon or Tools Used
● The photographer must be careful here
 Objects which might provide clue to
to show a reference point in every picture,
the identity of the perpetrator.
it shows which are right, left, up and down,
 Clues which would connect the suspect
north and south, etc.
to the crime.
c. Significant Clues
● These may be fingerprints, blood stains,
G. Guidelines in Taking Photograph at the
foot prints, skid marks, tool marks, broken
Crime Scene
glass, or any other physical evidence,
fingerprint in particular case should be
1. Establish Shot - Guidelines in Taking
Photographs at the Crime Scene
 photographed after dusting but before wounds, bruises, weapon used and
lifting. the place where it was taken
.
4. Photographing Corpse
H. Taking Photographs of Specific Crime
 In photographing corpse on the
Scene
scene, several pictures of the
1. Suicide by hanging conditions at the time of discovery
 Strangulation is the most common type including the environment of the
of suicide. But investigator must not corpse must be taken from various
assume that the victim found hanging photographic directions.
is due to suicide.  Show the general condition of the
 Photograph the subject at a distant at corpse, if as being deformed as a
four views, showing the full body, and whole.
then move in close to show the knot,  When photographing the damage
and the bruises marks. parts, consider the range of
 Note: do not untie the knot, just cut it. photographing to the damage part
2. Suicide by Shooting clearly; take close-up shots on the
 Photographs both entrance and exit several directions, if possible, so as
wounds. In most case Exit wound is to clarify their relation.
larger than entrance wound. 5. Robbery Case
 If possible, photograph close-up of  Photograph the general view of the
the wound in color to show various crime scene.
discoloration.  The point of entry begins with a
 Take note of the color of the body distant shot, and works into.
(discoloration).  Take close-up shots on the possible
 Usually, the hair surrounds the entry and exit to include the
entrance is singeing and the skin is pathways.
burned to a reddish or grayish-  Each room in house or a building
brown. If it is fired from range of which was disturbed should be
less than eight inches, black residue photograph.
maybe evident.  Take some shots of all furniture or
3. Homicide Case articles which show as evidence of
 When photographing the scene, the being ransack.
Forensic photographer relates what  Determine the possible point of exit.
he has seen and defends before the Usually, burglar may leave
court during trial. something at the crime scene
 Through photograph he has to show especially when she is surprised by
the manner by which the homicide someone, such as hat, gloves, and
occurred, views the room with all scarf or cigarette butts, etc.
possible entrance and exit. 6. Sex Offenses
 He must to show whether there are  The crime of rape may be taken as
any evidence of struggle and try to typical type of offense. There must
show what happen prior to the crime be a written permission from the
scene. Obvious evidence such as victim, the photograph must be
cigarette butts, blood stains or taken in the presence of their parents
broken glass should not be or guardian or medico legal officer.
overlooked. The indication of the victim’s effort
 The circumstances of death can be to resists bruises and blue marks and
illustrated by various views of the evidence of the presence of either or
body. Take close-up shots of the both parties at the scene.
  To the VICTIM: Verify the head, driver. If there are witnesses, photographs
neck including marks and should be taken at their level from the spot
discoloration of the body and where they have seen the incident.
genital, the conditions of c. Shots should be taken from our points of the
specifically affected parts, and the compass and 25 feet from point of impact to
presence of foreign hairs, fibers, and show the approach and terrain.
biological stains. Bite marks wounds d.Take close-up shots of the damage area in
should be photographed at twelve to two angles from a distance of 8 to 10 feet.
24 hours intervals for the proceeding e. Takes shots in order and properly noted at
days. the photographer notes so it will guide him
 To the SUSPECT: the suspect’s and the investigator how the accident
body may show evidence of occurred.
struggle, such as scratches or
bruises, foreign hairs that maybe CHAPTER 7
discovered by the physician. The
garments of the suspects may reveal PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE
blood stains, semen, hair strands,
etc. A. BASIC RULES IN ADMISSIBILITY
7. Arson
 The photographer should be the first  It is an established fact that a photograph
man to arrive at the scene so that he offered in evidence should be true and
will be able to begin photographing faithful representation of the scene or
the scene, before the fire trucks subject matter. The person viewing should
arrive, he should have his get an impression of the scene or object
photographic equipment ready to which does not mislead in any of the
start shooting immediately.
important aspect. It should be free from
 Be sure to photograph as many
unusual distortion of lines, shapes, and
speculators as you can. It is a
common knowledge that most or the color or any deceptive tone relationship.
arsonist get their kicks out of Important subjects should be in sharp
watching the fire and maybe in the focus.
crowd.
B. EVIDENCE PHOTOGRAPH MAY BE
 After the fire is extinguished, take
DIVIDED INTO TWO PARTS:
interior views of the scene from
diagonally opposite corners of the 1. That which represent an object of evidence
buildings. Also get up a high ladder and simply serve in place of an object or verbal
and take more photographs of the description of it.
ruins of the fire to show the entire
extent of fire. 2. those which are designed to prove a point
 To the immediate vicinity of the fire bearing an issue on a case such as a comparison
should also be photographed after chart of a fingerprint, handwriting or test bullets
the fire to show the location of the or shells.
building in relation to other building
of the neighborhood. C. TECHNIQUES FOR DEMONSTRATING
8. Road/Traffic accidents EVIDENCE PRINTS

a. Avoid unnecessary surroundings/objects that 1. Composite Exhibits- this consist of two

are not pertinent to the case. photographs placed side by side to show
b.“See through driver’s eye”. Photography points of similarities or differences. This
should be taken from the eye level of the
 is generally used in the comparison of 277 involving color photography of
fingerprint or handwriting. spoiled meat in violation of health
2. Matching photographs- this is another ordinance prohibiting the sale of putrid
technique of illustrating similarities. meat to the public.
Place a part of one photograph over and  1960- in Criminal case, State vs. Conte
in careful alignment with the other. 157 Comm. 251 A 2. D 81 showing the
Used in toolmarks, shells, pair graphic wound of the victim.
illustrations or in matching glass
E. POINTS OF OBJECTION ON THE
fragments or paint chips.
ADMISSIBILITY OF A PHOTOGRAPH
3. Matching Transparencies- this is used
to show objects have identical outline. A
1. Accuracy of Color
positive transparency of one is placed
 The true color reproduction may be a
over the other, adjusted so the outline
point of contentions if color is of
coincides, like in proving traced forgery.
critical issue. Questions may be
4. Juxta Position – that is the two objects,
directed on lighting, filters, and
evidence bullet or shell and test bullet or
processing because they affect color
shell examined and compared: at the
balance.
same direction, at the same
2. Alterations on negatives or on prints
magnification, at the same image, at the
 Presence of any deliberate attempt to
same level or plane or the placement of
alter photographic evidence.
the evidence specimens and test-fired
specimen in side-by-side position.
3. Computer generated image
5. Intermarriage - refers to the position of
 Computer technology brings with it
both evidence and test-fired specimen,
new advancement capabilities to apply
wherein half of the same image of
to problems photographs. However, it
evidence specimen and half of the same
also brings the chance of
image of the test-fired specimen is
misunderstanding because images, even
merged into one image.
colors are easily manipulated.
4. Enlargements
D. LEGAL FOUNDATION OF
PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE  Size that will conform with the correct
or normal viewing distance and also in
1. Black and White Photographs possibility of cropping of crucial
 1859- Daguerreotype was used in a civil evidence.
case, Lueo vs. United States, 23 Howard 5. Errors in printing
515 to decide on the authenticity of  Reverse prints, over-exposure or under-
photographs in comparing signatures. exposure blurred prints, dodging or
 1874- in Criminal case introducing burning-in efforts.
photograph as identification evidence, 6. Equipment
Underzook vs. Commonwealth, 76 PA  Camera used, lens used, accessory
340. equipment
2.Color Photographs 7. Lighting
 1943- Civil Litigations Green vs. City and  Lighting procedure and technique used
Country of Denver, 3 Colo 390 142 P.2. D. for artistic purpose can sometimes
 produce interesting and deceptive b. Medium views
result. c. Close-up views
8. Markings on photographs such as lines, 4. Photographs should be taken progressively
circles, arrows, numbers, etc. are to be as the photographers enter the building or
avoided except on comparison charts. room to avoid disturbing something that
might otherwise remain unnoticed, and to
F. THE BEST EVIDENCE RULE AND maintain continuity.
PHOTOGRAPH 5. Views should be taken to illustrate the
 Photograph is not a legal substitute for the general location of the crime scene.
object or article itself, as evidence. 6. Definitely required is a view of the exterior
Nevertheless, all physical evidence should of the building. It is well to include the street
be photographed. A photograph of revolver number whenever possible.
will not be accepted as evidence in court. 7. Needed next is the complete photographic
The weapon itself must be brought to court coverage of the interior rooms within the
– this is an essence of. crime area, which show the condition in
 The court recognizes that certain evidence general and relate the overall scenes too
cannot be brought to court. Buildings or specific items and places.
roads are examples. Other evidence 8. Bodies of victims should be photographed
changes quickly. Vehicles using and exactly as found from all angles, especially
passing on it will quickly destroy skid from overhead when this can be done for
marks on the highway. Wounds and bruises identification purposes. A close-up
as evidence of injury will heal and photograph, one to one, if possible, should
disappear before the case comes to trial. be taken on all wounds, bruises,
Such nature or kind of evidence can be discoloration, and abrasion generally in
preserved by photography and introduced black and white color.
in court as evidence. 9. Measuring devices such as rulers,
yardsticks, and tape measures can be used to
G. PREPAPARATION AND show the relative size of and distance
PRESENTATION OF between objects and the degree of the
PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE magnification of an enlargement. Measuring
devices must not obscure the object to be
Each crime has individual features that should shown, so it is placed at the bottom or just
be photographed. Keep in mind that the nature below the object to show the relative size of
of the offense and the feature that establishes the objects in a photographic exhibit.
elements of the offense is being shown. 10. Field Notes:
a. Record the date and time of arrival at the
scene as well as the time of departure from
H. PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCEDURE the scene.
1. The camera should be mounted on a steady b. Specifically record the location area, street
tripod whenever possible to avoid camera number, and name of building, type of
movement. scene.
2. The camera should be levelled whenever c. Write down the name, badge numbers of
commensurate with the particular all investigative officer’s present during
photograph to be taken. the photographing.
3. Crime scene views include three (3) general d. Record specific information on each
classes. They are: exposure, including the time of taking each
a. Long views picture which can be expressed either
 using AM or PM or military type of camera or negative is used, a photograph is
timing. admitted as evidence when it is proven and
11. Additionally, record the; there must always preliminarily proofs that
a. Direction camera pointed it is a correct representation of the subject.
b. General statement of the photographed
object K. EFFECT OF VARIOUS
c. Exposure or ASA rating PHOTOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS
d. Kind of film used
e. Types of lighting utilized in photographing 1. Experience and skill of photographer
a. Amateur
G. WHO MAY VERIFY PHOTOGRAPH b. Professional
1. The better practice is to show the accuracy 2. Photographs are dependent for their
of the photographs by the photographer accuracy upon the skill of the person
who took them. making them and the truthfulness of the
2. Any person having sufficient knowledge to one vouching for them. Interest and
say that the photograph is a faithful prejudice of the photographer
presentation thereof. 3. Condition and size of the taking
apparatus. (Efficacy of camera)
H. THE PHOTOGRAPHER IN COURT 4. Marking the subject before
photographing. Marking includes the
In testifying, his purpose should be to following:
explain not to defend his photograph. His a. Chart or sign bearing
replies to queries should be directly identification data
responsive at all times. If he does not b. Rulers or any measuring
understand the question, he should request devices
clarification. When the nature of the c. Any animate or inanimate object
question requires that he consult his notes, used a position marker
he should request permission from the d. Any substance used to intensify
judge. details which otherwise would
not show up in the photograph.
I. RELEVANCE AND MATERIALITY 5. Development
Test for Determining the Relevancy 6. Methods of Printing
1. Photographs are admissible 7. Size of exhibit
whenever they assist the court 8. Composite photographs
to understand the case. 9. Retouched photographs
2. Photographs are admissible 10. Marks and notations written on
when they assisted witness in exhibits.
explaining his testimony. CHAPTER 8

J. NECESSITY OF PRELIMINARY ADMISSIBILITY OF DIGITAL

PROOF OF ACCURACY PHOTOGRAPHS IN COURT

A photograph taken in ordinary way usually A. DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHY

is an accurate record of image cast by the  uses cameras containing arrays of
lens upon the film, but as distortion is electronic photo detectors to produce
images focused by a lens, as opposed to an
possible through the manner in which the
exposure on photographic film. The
 captured images are digitized and stored as 6. Beware of potential issues with raw image
a computer file ready for further digital formats
processing, viewing, electronic publishing, 7. Beware of potential issues with Joint
or digital printing. Photographic Experts Group or JPEG files
 When digital imaging is considered for law
enforcement, the concern of the
admissibility of digital photographic E. GUIDELINES FOR ENSURING
evidence in court is often raised. The fact DIGITAL PHOTOGRAPHS ARE
that digital photographs are more easily ADMISSIBLE
altered than film-based photographs is
usually cited. Some even believe digital 1. Develop a Standard Operating Procedure
photographs are not admissible in court. (SOP), Department Policy, or General
Order on the use of digital imaging. The
a. LEGAL FOUNDATION OF DIGITAL SOP should include when digital imaging is
PHOTOGRAPHY used, chain of custody, image security,
image enhancement, and release and
2. R.A 8792 (E-Commerce Law) availability of digital images. The SOP
3. Acting on the memorandum dated June 18, should not apply just to digital, but should
2001 of the committee on the Revision of also include film-based and video
rules of court to draft on the E-Commerce applications as well.
Law (R.A 8792) the Supreme Court, En 2. Most importantly, preserve the original
Banc, approved the said resolution. digital image. This can be done a variety of
ways including saving the image file to a
C. Absolute Basics of Digital Photography hard drive or recording the image file to a
CD. Some agencies elect to use image
The absolute basics of digital photography, are security software.
as follows: 3. Digital images should be preserved in their
1. Stop Shaking the Camera original file formats. The saving of a file in
2. Remember to Reset the Camera some file formats
Settings. 4. subject the image to lossy compression. If
3. Keep the Batteries Charged lossy compression is used critical image
4. Know the Difference Between JPEG information may be lost and artifacts
and RAW. JPEG files are ideal for introduced as a result of the compression
situations where the forensic process.
photographer want to print or share the 5. If images are stored on a computer
shots right away. workstation or server, and several
5. Use the Zoom Wisely individuals would have access to the image
6. Experiment with the Point of View files, make the files read-only for all but
D. DIGIITAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN LAW your evidence or photo lab staff. As an
ENFORCEMENT example, detectives could view any image
files but they would not have rights to
Any police or law enforcement agencies that delete or overwrite those files.
decides to use digital photography must create a 6. If an image is to be analyzed or enhanced
set of standards operating procedures (SOPs), the new image files created should be saved
that must be followed to the letter, as follows: as new file names. The original file must
not be replaced (overwritten) with a new
1. Get an archive and management system file.
2. Watch out for proprietary formatting
3. Make sure the images will stand up in court F. ADMISSIBILITY OF DIGITAL
4. Backup, backup, and backup again PHOTOGRAPHS
5. Do not be afraid to invest in storage space
The rules on evidence, defines writings and photograph accurately portrays the scene as
recordings to include magnetic, mechanical viewed by that witness.
or electronic recordings. This also states
that if data are stored in a computer or
similar device, any printout or other output
readable by sight, shown to reflect the data
accurately, is an “original.” That the
duplicate is a counterpart produced by the “Life is like Photography; you use the
same impression as the original by Negatives to Develop.”
mechanical or electronic re-recording, or
by other techniques which accurately
reproduces the original.

The rules on evidence also indicates that a

duplicate is admissible to the same extent
as an original unless:
a. a genuine question is raised as to
the authenticity of the original; or
b. in the circumstances it would be
unfair to admit the duplicate in lieu
of the original.

This means a photograph can be stored

digitally in a computer, that a digital
photograph stored in a computer is
considered an original, and any exact
copy of the digital photograph is
admissible as evidence. Images stored on
video or digital media, or copies of images
stored on video or digital media, shall not
be rendered inadmissible.

Printed representation of images stored on

video or digital media shall be presumed to
be accurate representations of the images
that they purport to represent. Finally, the
principal requirements to admit a
photograph, that is, digital or film-based,
into evidence are relevance and
authenticity. Unless the photograph is
admitted by the stipulation of parties, the
party attempting to admit the photograph
into evidence must be prepared to offer
testimony that it is an accurate
representation of the scene. This usually
means someone must testify that the