A.C.

Fundamentals

Electric circuits supplied by an alternating current sources (ac) are called ac circuits. An
alternating quantity, voltage current, is one that varies periodically both in magnitude and
direction. The shape of the curve is obtained by plotting its magnitude versus time or angle and
is called waveform. The periodic waveform will have a definite cycle of change. Each cycle
consists of two half cycles, during one of which the ac quantity acts in one direction around the
circuit and during the other half cycle in the opposite direction.

Difference between AC & DC:-

Alternating current Direct current
1) It is easy to generate from turbines. 1) It is obtained by converting ac to dc

2) Its frequency is 50 to 60Hz 2) Its frequency is zero

3) It is easily changed to lower or higher value. 3) It is not easy to change dc current or voltages

4) It changes both its magnitude and direction 4) It keeps flowing in one direction only.
regularly.

5) It is more dangerous than dc at the same 5) It is less dangerous than ac at the same voltage
voltage rating. rating.

6) AC transmission at high voltages using wire 6) Dc transmission at extremely high voltages is

conductors over great distances is less more efficient. It is so because the wire offers
efficient. It is so because the wire offers more less impedance with dc than ac. More ever, less
impedance to it than DC. More ever, there is energy is lost in magnetic fields around the
loss of energy in magnetic fields around the wires.
wires.

Generation of sinusoidal voltage:- Alternating voltage may be generated;

1. By rotating a coil in a magnetic field.
2. By rotating a magnetic field with in a stationary coil.
 Fig.1.18

Fig.1.19

fig-1.19

Working:- The coil is rotated in anticlockwise direction with an angular velocity of ω rad/sec
in a uniform magnetic field. While rotating the conductor ab and cd cuts the lines of flux of the
permanent magnet. Due to the laws of electro-magnetic induction, the emf gets induced in the
conductors. This emf drives a current through resistance `R` connected across the brushes P
and Q. The magnitude of the induced emf depends on the position of the coil in the magnetic
field.

Instant-1:- Let the initial position of the coil as shown in the fig-1.18. The plane of the coil is
perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field. The instantaneous component of velocity
of conductor’s ab and cd is parallel to the magnetic field and there cannot be the cutting of flux
lines by the conductors. Hence, no emf is induced in the conductor ab and cd as shown in fig-
1.19(a).

Instant-2:- When the coil is rotated in anticlockwise directions through some angle θ, then the
velocity will have two components vsinθ perpendicular to flux lines and vcosθ parallel to the
flux lines. Due to vsinθ component, there will be cutting of flux and proportionally, there will
be induced emf in the conductor ab and cd as shown in fig-1.19(b).

Instant-3:- At θ = 90o, the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field, while the
components of velocity cutting the lines of flux is at its maximum. So the induced emf is
maximum as shown in fig-1.19(c).

Instant-4:- As the coil continues to rotate further from θ = 90 to 180o, the component of
velocity perpendicular to magnetic field start decreasing, hence gradually decreasing the
magnitude of induced emf as shown in fig-1.19(d).

Instant-5:- In this instant, the velocity component is parallel to the lines of flux similar to the
instant-1.Hence there is no cutting of flux and hence no induced emf in both the conductors as
shown in fig-1.19(e).

Instant -6:- As the coil rotates beyond θ = 180o, the conductor ab until now cutting lines in
one particular directions reverses the direction of cutting flux lines. Similar is the behavior of
conductor cd. This change in directions of induced emf occurs because of rotation of
conductor’s ab and cd reverses with respect to the field as θ varies from 180o to 360o. This
process continues as coil rotates further.

The polarities of the end terminals b and d of loop abcd changes periodically. For half
revolutions i.e from 0 to 180o, the terminal b is positive and terminal d is negative, where as
for next half rotation i.e from 180o to 360o, the terminal d is positive and terminal b is negative.

The emf induced is due to the component of velocity that is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The emf is induced is given by;

e = Blvsinθ --------------1

The maximum emf is induced when θ = 90o, where θ is the angle between the field and direction
of the velocity component.

em = Blv

e = 0; when no flux linking the conductor.

Hence, the equation giving instantaneous value of generated emf can be expressed as,

e = Emsinθ, = Em sinωt = Em sin2πft ---------------2

Standard definition:-

Fig.1.20

1. Instantaneous value: - The value of alternating quantity at a particular instant is known as

its instantaneous value.
2. Waveform: - The graph of instantaneous values of an alternating quantity plotted against
time is called waveforms.
3. Cycle: - Each repetition of set of positive and negative instantaneous values of alternating
quantity is called cycle.
4. Time period (T):- The time taken by an alternating quantity to its one cycle is known as its
time period denoted by T seconds. After every T seconds, the cycle of alternating quantity
repeats.
5. Frequency (f):- The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per sec is known
as frequency. It is denoted by `f ` and measured in Hz or cycles/sec.
1
∴ 𝑓=
𝐻𝑧
𝑇
6. Amplitude:- The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during positive or
negative half cycle is called amplitude. It is denoted by 𝐸𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑚 .
7. Angular frequency (ω):- It is the frequency expressed in electrical radians per second. As
one cycle corresponds to 2π radians, the angular frequency can be expressed as 2πf. It is
denoted by `ω `

2𝜋
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑜𝑟 𝜔 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑇
8. Peak to peak value:- The value of alternating quantity from its positive peak to negative
peak is called its peak to peak value.
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 =
2
Root mean square (RMS) or Effective value of alternating quantity:-

The effective or rms value of an alternating current is given by that steady current (DC), which
when flowing through a given circuit for a given time, produces the same amount of heat as
produced by alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for same time.
 𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = 0.707𝐼𝑚
√2

Like wise 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 0.707𝑉𝑚

Average value: - The average value of an alternating current is equal to that steady current
(DC) which transfers the same amount of charge, as transferred by an alternating current over
the same period.

2𝐼𝑚
Iav = = 0.637𝐼𝑚
𝜋

Form factor (Kf) :-

𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 0.707𝐼𝑚

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐾𝑓 = = = 1.11
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 0.637𝐼𝑚
Crest or Peak factor (𝐾𝑝 ):-

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟, 𝐾𝑝 = = = 1.414
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑚
√2
Phasor representation of alternating quantities:-
The length of line which represents the magnitude and arrow indicates its direction. Such a line
is called a phasor or vector. The method of representing alternating quantities continuously by
equations giving instantaneous values is quite tedious. Therefore it is more convenient to
represents a sinusoidal quantity by a phasor rotating in an anticlockwise direction as shown in
the fig.1.25.

Fig.1.25
While representing an alternating quantity by a phasor, it should satisfy the following
conditions.
1. The length of phasor should be equal to the maximum value of the alternating quantity.
2. It should be in the horizontal position at the instant when the alternating quantity is zero and
is increasing in the positive direction.
3. The angular velocity in an anti-clockwise direction of the phasor should be such that it
completes one revolution in the same time as taken by the alternating quantity to complete
one cycle.

Consider phasor OA from the fig.1.25, which represents the maximum value of the alternating
emf and its angle with the horizontal axis, gives its phase. Now, it will be seen that the
projection of his phasor OA on the vertical axis will give the instantaneous value of emf.
∴ OB = OA Sin𝜔𝑡
e = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

Phase of alternating quantity:-

The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant is the angle through which the rotating vector
representing the alternating quantity has rotated through from reference axis. When the rotating
vector OA is along the X-axis at position -1, its phase at that instant is zero. Any other instant
say at position-5, the phase of the alternating quantity is `θ`.
Phase difference: - The difference between the phases of the two alternating quantities is
called phase difference.
i) Zero phase difference:-

Fig.1.26
When the phase differences between two alternating quantity is zero, the two quantities are
said to be in phase as shown in the fig.1.26
ii. Lagging phase difference:-

Fig.1.27
 Consider an emf having maximum value 𝐸𝑚 and current having maximum value 𝐼𝑚 . Now when
`e` is at zero value and current `i` has negative value. Thus there exists a phase difference Φ
between two phasors as shown in the fig.127
Now, as the two are rotating in anticlockwise direction, we can say that current is behind or
falling back w.r.t to voltage at all instants by angle Φ. This is called lagging phase difference.
The equations of two quantities are written as
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡; 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 𝛷)
iii. Leading phase difference:-

Fig.1.28
From the fig.1.28 it can be seen that there exists a phase difference of Φ angle between the two.
But in this case current `i` ahead of voltage `e` as both are rotating in anticlockwise direction
with same speed. Thus the current is said to be leading with same speed. Thus the current is
said to leading w.r.t to voltage and the phase difference is called leading phase difference.
𝑒 = 𝐸𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡; 𝑖 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝛷)
 SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS
Pure R circuit

Fig.2.1 Fig.2.2
Consider an AC circuit with a pure resistance R as shown in the figure 2.1. The alternating
voltage

--------- (1)
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the resistor is given as VR which is
the same as 𝑣. Using ohms law,

From equation (1) and (2) it is clear that in a pure resistive circuit, the voltage and current are
in phase. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasor can be drawn as shown in the
fig.2.2.
Instantaneous power
The instantaneous power consists of two terms. The first term is called as the constant power
term and the second term is called as the fluctuating power term.
Average power

As seen above the average power is the product of the rms voltage and the rms current.The
voltage, current and power waveforms of a purely resistive circuit is as shown in the figure2.3.

Fig.2.3
As seen from the waveform, the instantaneous power is always positive meaning that the power
always flows from the source to the load.
Pure L circuit
From fundamentals show that current through the inductance is lagging by an angle π /
2 radians ( i e 900 ) w.r.t. the voltage across it. Also prove that power consumed by pure
inductance is zero.

Fig.2.4

Consider an AC circuit with a pure inductance L as shown in the figure.2.4. The alternating
supply voltage ,
The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the inductor is given as VL which is
the
same as v.

Inductive reactance XL ( It is equivalent to resistance in a resistive circuit. The unit is ohms.

From equation (1) and (2) we observe that in a pure inductive circuit, the current lags behind
the voltage by 900 as shown in the fig.2.5

Fig.2.5 Fig.2.6

Instantaneous power
Average Power

Hence the power absorbed in a pure inductive circuit is zero.

As seen from fig.2.6 in the power waveform, the instantaneous power is alternately positive
and negative. When the power is positive, the power flows from the source to the inductor and
when the power in negative, the power flows from the inductor to the source. The positive
power is equal to the negative power and hence the average power in the circuit is equal to
zero. The power just flows between the source and the inductor, but the inductor does not
consume any power.

Pure C circuit
From fundamentals show that current through the capacitance is leading by an angle π
/ 2 radians ( i e 900 ) w.r.t. the voltage across it. Also prove that power consumed by pure
capacitance is zero.

Fig.2.7

Consider an AC circuit with a pure capacitance C as shown in the figure.2.7. The alternating
voltage v is given by

The current flowing in the circuit is i. The voltage across the capacitor is given as VC which is
the same as v. The current through the capacitor as follows
From equation (1) and (2) we observe that in a pure capacitive circuit, the current leads the
voltage by 90⁰. Hence the voltage and current waveforms and phasors can be drawn as below
in the fig.2.8.

Fig.2.8

Capacitive reactance
The capacitive reactance XC is given as It is equivalent to resistance in a resistive circuit. The
unit is ohms.

Instantaneous power
The instantaneous power in the above circuit can be derived as follows

As seen from the above equation, the instantaneous power is fluctuating in nature.
Average power
From the instantaneous power we can find the average power over one cycle as follows

The average power in a pure capacitive circuit is zero. Or in other words, the power consumed
by a pure capacitance is zero.
The voltage, current and power waveforms of a purely capacitive circuit is as shown in the
figure2.9.

Fig.2.9
As seen from the power waveform in fig.2.9, the instantaneous power is alternately positive
and negative. When the power is positive, the power flows from the source to the capacitor and
when the power in negative, the power flows from the capacitor to the source. The positive
power is equal to the negative power and hence the average power in the circuit is equal to
zero. The power just flows between the source and the capacitor, but the capacitor does not
consume any power.

RL Series circuit:

Fig.2.10
Consider an a.c. circuit containing a pure resistance R ohms and a pure inductance of L henrys
as shown in fig 2.10.

The alternating voltage v is given by :

The current flowing in the circuit is I. The voltage across the resistor is VR and that across the
inductor is VL.
VR = IR is in phase with I.
VL = IXL leads current by 90 degrees.
The phasor diagram is shown in figure2.11. The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The
voltage VR is in phase with I and the voltage VL leads the current by 900. The resultant voltage
V can be drawn as shown in the figure. From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage
leads the current by an angle ɸ or in other words the current lags behind the voltage by an angle
ɸ.

Fig.2.11

The waveform for an RL series circuit is shown below in the fig.2.12.

 Fig.2.12

RC Series Circuit

Fig.2.14
Consider an a.c. circuit containing a pure resistance R ohms and a pure capacitance of C Farad
as shown in fig 2.14.

The alternating voltage v is given by 𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

The current flowing in the circuit is I. The voltage across the resistor is VR and that across the
capacitor is VC.
VR=IR is in phase with I
VC=IXC lags current by 90 degrees
The phasor diagram is shown in figure.2.15

Fig.2.15

The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I and the voltage
VC lags the current by 900. The resultant voltage V can be drawn as shown in the figure.2.15.
From the phasor diagram we observe that the voltage lags the current by an angle Φ or in other
words the current leads the voltage by an angle Φ.
The waveform for an RC series circuit is shown below in the fig.2.16

Explain the series RLC circuit for the following cases when
(a) XL > XC, (b) XL < XC and (c) XL = XC

Fig.2.17
Consider an AC circuit with a resistance R, an inductance L and a capacitance C connected in
series as shown in the figure2.17. The alternating voltage 𝑣 is given by
𝑣 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
The current flowing in the circuit is I. The voltage across the resistor is VR, the voltage across
the inductor is VL and that across the capacitor is VC.
VR = IR is in phase with I
VL = IXL leads the current by 90 degrees
VC = IXC lags behind the current by 90 degrees
With the above information, the phasor diagram can be drawn as shown in the fig.2.18.
The current I is taken as the reference phasor. The voltage VR is in phase with I, the voltage VL
leads the current by 90° and the voltage VC lags behind the current by 90° . There are two cases
that can occur VL>VC and VL<VC depending on the values of XL and XC and hence there are
two possible phasor diagrams. The phasor 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 or 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 is drawn and then the resultant
voltage 𝑣 is drawn.
 Fig.2.18
From the phasor diagram we observe that when VL>VC, the voltage leads the current by an
angle Φ or in other words the current lags behind the voltage by an angle Φ. When VL< VC,
the voltage lags behind the current by an angle Φ or in other words the current leads the voltage
by an angle Φ.
From the phasor diagram, the expressions for the resultant voltage V and the angle ɸ can be
derived as follows.

From the expression for phase angle, we can derive the following three cases
Case (i): When XL>XC
The phase angle Φ is positive and the circuit is inductive. The circuit behaves like a series RL
circuit.
Case (ii): When XL<XC
The phase angle Φ is negative and the circuit is capacitive. The circuit behaves like a series RC
circuit.
Case (iii): When XL=XC
The phase angle Φ = 0 and the circuit is purely resistive. The circuit behaves like a pure resistive
circuit.
The voltage and the current can be represented by the following equations. The angle Φ is
positive or negative depending on the circuit elements.

Hence the power in an RLC series circuit is consumed only in the resistance. The inductance
and the capacitance do not consume any power.