JNTUA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (AUTONOMOUS), ANANTHAPURAMU

M.Tech I Year I Semester (R21)-EEE-Reg. /Supple. Examinations, February 2024

(Electrical Power Systems)

POWER SYSTEM SECURITY AND STATE ESTIMATION (21D21102)

SCHEME OF EVALUATION
1. a.

2.
3.a. Power Flow Method:
Satisfactory operation of complex, large and interconnected (grid-operated)
power systems requires power flow (commonly called load flow) computer
programs. The power flow study program evaluates and analyzes the system
under balanced three-phase steady state conditions.

Basic Applications of Power Flow Studies and its Significance in Power

System Operation and Control:

1. To set the active power generation according to economic-dispatch

practice for a given set of active power loads at the bus-bars and
transmission loss.

2. To set the reactive power generation and transmission in order to

maintain the bus voltage magnitudes close to the rated values.

3. To verify that generators operate within the specified active and reactive
power limits.

4. To verify that transmission lines and transformers are not over loaded.
5. The study provides the power systems planning engineer with the
information necessary to bring about changes in generation and
transmission systems to meet projected load growth in the future.

6. As the study is conducted under steady-state conditions of the system, it

provides numerical steady-state values (initial values at t 0) of the system
parameters for solving differential equations, as in the case of dynamical
studies.

7. The study is useful for finding the optimal size and location of capacitors
to maintain the system’s voltage profile at acceptable limits. Likewise, it
helps other voltage control equipments like the shunt reactor and static VAR
compensators to be installed at proper bus locations.

3.b. Factors Affecting Power System Security:

 As a consequence of many widespread blackouts in interconnected

power systems, the priorities for operation of modern power systems
have evolved to the following:

 Operate the system in such a way that power is delivered reliably.

 Within the constraints placed on the system operation by reliability

considerations, the system will be operated most economically.

 The greater part of this book is devoted to developing methods to operate

a power system to gain maximum economy.

But what factors affect its operation from a reliability standpoint? We will
assume that the engineering groups who have designed the power system’s
transmission and generation systems have done so with reliability in mind.
This means that adequate generation has been installed to meet the load
and that adequate transmission has been installed to deliver the generated
power to the load.

 If the operation of the system went on without sudden failures or without

experiencing unanticipated operating states, we would probably have no
reliability problems. However, any piece of equipment in the system can
fail, either due to internal causes or due to external causes such as
 lightning strikes, objects hitting transmission towers, or human errors in
setting relays.

 It is impossible to build a power system with so much redundancy (i.e.,

extra transmission lines, reserve generation, etc.) that failures never
cause load to be dropped on a system.

 Rather, systems are designed so that the probability of dropping load is

acceptably small. Thus, most power systems are designed to have
sufficient redundancy to withstand all major failure events, but this does
not guarantee that the system will be 100% reliable.

 Within the design and economic limitations, it is the job of the operators
to try to maximize the reliability of the system they have at any given
time. Usually, a power system is never operated with all equipment “in”
(i.e., connected) since failures occur or maintenance may require taking
equipment out of service. Thus, the operators play a considerable role in
seeing that the system is reliable.

4.a. Necessity of Power Flow Method:

Satisfactory operation of complex, large and interconnected (grid-operated)
power systems requires power flow (commonly called load flow) computer
programs. The power flow study program evaluates and analyzes the system
under balanced three-phase steady state conditions.

Basic Applications of Power Flow Studies and its Significance in Power

System Operation and Control:

1. To set the active power generation according to economic-dispatch

practice for a given set of active power loads at the bus-bars and
transmission loss.

2. To set the reactive power generation and transmission in order to

maintain the bus voltage magnitudes close to the rated values.

3. To verify that generators operate within the specified active and reactive
power limits.

4. To verify that transmission lines and transformers are not over loaded.
 5. The study provides the power systems planning engineer with the
information necessary to bring about changes in generation and
transmission systems to meet projected load growth in the future.

6. As the study is conducted under steady-state conditions of the system, it

provides numerical steady-state values (initial values at t 0) of the system
parameters for solving differential equations, as in the case of dynamical
studies.

7. The study is useful for finding the optimal size and location of capacitors
to maintain the system’s voltage profile at acceptable limits. Likewise, it
helps other voltage control equipments like the shunt reactor and static VAR
compensators to be installed at proper bus locations.

4.b. Power System Security:

 An overriding factor in the operation of a power system is the desire to

maintain system security. System security involves practices designed to
keep the system operating when components fail.

 For example, a generating unit may have to be taken offline because of

auxiliary equipment failure. By maintaining proper amounts of spinning
reserve, the remaining units on the system can make up the deficit without
too low a frequency drop or need to shed any load. Similarly, a
transmission line may be damaged by a storm and taken out by automatic
relaying.

 If, in committing and dispatching generation, proper regard for

transmission flows is maintained, the remaining transmission lines can
take the increased loading and still remain within limit.

 All equipment in a power system is designed such that it can be

disconnected from the network. The reasons for these disconnections are
generally divided into two categories: scheduled outages and forced
outages.

 Scheduled outages are typically done to perform maintenance or

replacement of the equipment, and, as its name implies, the time of
disconnect is scheduled by operators to minimize the impact on the
reliability of the system.
 Forced outages are those that happen at random and may be due to
internal component failures or outside influences such as lightning, wind
storms, ice buildup, etc,.

5.

6.a. Detection of Network Problems:

Generation Outages

When a generator suffers a forced outage, it causes changes in other

generators as well as changes in the transmission system.

Effect on Other Generations

When a generator fails, its power output is lost, and the result is an imbalance
between total load plus losses and total generation. This imbalance results in a
drop in frequency, which must be restored. To restore frequency back to its
nominal value (50Hz or 60Hz), other generators must make up the loss of
power from the outaged generator. The proportion of the lost power made up
by each generator is strictly determined by its governor droop characteristic.
Effects on Transmission

When generation is lost, much of the made up power will come from tie lines,
and this can mean line flow limit or bus voltage limit violations.

Transmission Outages

When a transmission line or transformer fails and is disconnected, the flow on

that line goes to zero and all flows nearby will be affected. The result can be a
line flow limit or bus voltage limit violation. There is no way to know which line
or transformer outage is going to cause the worst violations. The operators
therefore usually want to check as many of them as possible, as often as
possible. Thus, the operators may seek to model and calculate the outage
effects from an outage of every line and transformer in the system.

Double Outages

An even more difficult analysis is to check all pairs of possible simultaneous

outages, which is denoted (n − 2). Thus, all pairs of generators, and all pairs of
transmission lines as well as pairs of single generator outages plus a possible
single transmission-line outage at the same time would have to be analyzed.
This (n − 2) analysis is much more difficult because of the extremely large
number of cases to model. The usual practice is to only study a few of the (n −
2) cases that are known by experience to be the most serious cases.

Operations Needs to Know What Outages Will Cause Problems

Operations personnel must know which line or generation outages will cause
flows or voltages to fall outside limits. To predict the effects of outages,
contingency analysis techniques are used. Contingency analysis procedures
model single failure events (i.e., one-line outage or one-generator outage) or
multiple equipment failure events (i.e., two transmission Operations Needs to
Know What Outages Will Cause Problems. Operations personnel must know
which line or generation outages will cause flows or voltages to fall outside
limits. To predict the effects of outages, contingency analysis techniques are
used. Contingency analysis procedures model single failure events (i.e., one-
line outage or one-generator outage) or multiple equipment failure events (i.e.,
two transmission.
The most difficult methodological problem to cope with in contingency analysis
is the speed of solution of the model used. The most difficult logical problem is
the selection of “all credible outages.” If each outage case studied were to solve
in 1 s and several thousand outages were of concern, it would take close to 1 h
before all cases could be reported. This would be useful if the system
conditions did not change over that period of time. However, power systems are
constantly undergoing changes and the operators usually need to know if the
present operation of the system is safe, without waiting too long for the
answer. Contingency analysis execution times of less than 1 min for several
thousand outage cases are typical of computer and analytical technology as of
2014.

6.b. Linear Sensitivity Factors:

The problem of studying thousands of possible outages becomes very difficult

to solve if it is desired to present the results quickly. One of the easiest ways to
provide a quick calculation of possible overloads is to use linear sensitivity
factors. These factors show the approximate change in line flows for changes in
generation on the network configuration. These factors can be derived in a
variety of ways and basically come down to two types:

1. Power Transfer Distribution Factors (PTDFs)

2. Line Outage Distribution Factors (LODFs)

7.
8.a. Orthogonal Decomposition:
8.b. Bad Data Detection:
9.a. Need for Deregulation:

 For over one hundred years, the electric power industry worldwide
operated as a regulated industry. In any area, there was only one
company or government agency (mostly state-owned) that produced,
transmitted, distributed and sold electric power and services.
Deregulation as a concept came in early 1990s. It brought in changes
designed to encourage competition.

 Restructuring involves disassembly of the power industry and reassembly

into another form or functional organisation. Privatisation started sale by
a government of its state-owned electric utility assets, and operating
economy, to private companies. In some cases, deregulation was driven by
privatization needs.

 The state wants to sell its electric utility investment and change the rules
(deregulation) to make the electric industry more palatable for potential
investors, thus raising the price it could expect from the sale. Open access
is nothing but a common way for a government to encourage competition
in the electric industry and tackle monopoly. The consumer is assured of
good quality power supply at competitive price.

 The structure for deregulation is evolved in terms of Genco (Generation

Company), Transco (Transmission Company) and ISO (Independent
System Operator). It is expected that the optimal bidding will help Genco
to maximize its payoffs. The consumers are given choice to buy energy
from different retail energy suppliers who in turn buy the energy from
Genco in a power market, (independent power producer, IPP).

 The restructuring of the electricity supply industry that normally

accompanies the introduction of competition provides a fertile ground for
the growth of embedded generation, i.e. generation that is connected to
the distribution system rather than to the transmission system.

 India has now enacted the Electricity Regulatory Commission’s Act, 1998
and the Electricity (Laws) Amendment Act, 1998. These laws enable
setting up of Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) at
central level and State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERC) at
 state level. The main purpose of CERC is to promote efficiency, economy
and competition in bulk electricity supply. Orissa, Haryana, Andhra
Pradesh, etc. have started the process of restructuring the power sector
in their respective states.

9.b. System Security in Deregulation:

 An overriding factor in the operation of a power system is the desire to

maintain system security. System security involves practices designed to
keep the system operating when components fail.

 For example, a generating unit may have to be taken offline because of

auxiliary equipment failure. By maintaining proper amounts of spinning
reserve, the remaining units on the system can make up the deficit
without too low a frequency drop or need to shed any load. Similarly, a
transmission line may be damaged by a storm and taken out by
automatic relaying.

 If, in committing and dispatching generation, proper regard for

transmission flows is maintained, the remaining transmission lines can
take the increased loading and still remain within limit.

 All equipment in a power system is designed such that it can be

disconnected from the network. The reasons for these disconnections are
generally divided into two categories: scheduled outages and forced
outages.

 Scheduled outages are typically done to perform maintenance or

replacement of the equipment, and, as its name implies, the time of
disconnect is scheduled by operators to minimize the impact on the
reliability of the system.

 Forced outages are those that happen at random and may be due to
internal component failures or outside influences such as lightning, wind
storms, ice buildup, etc,.
10.a. Power Wheeling:

 Power Wheeling is the transfer of power from the point of generation by a

power producer using the transmission networks which do not belong to
him.

 Power wheeling is used by owners of large power plants which do not have
their own transmission networks. These producers usually pay a sum to
the utility or company which owns the power transmission network.

 The charges for using the network may vary with the time of day. As the
congestion on the networks is higher during the daytime and less during
the off-peak hours, the charges are higher during the peak hours and lower
during the off-peak hours.

 Hence, it is essential to measure the power and the time of the day in
which it was transferred. Hence, there are special time-of-day energy
meters to record the time as well as the amount of power transferred.

 The movement toward more open access participation continues and more
entities are becoming involved in the operation of the interconnected
systems. Almost all of the nonutility participants are involved in supplying
power and energy to utilities or large industrial firms.

 The use of a transmission system by parties other than its owner involves
“wheeling” arrangements. Wheeling contracts are an arrangement to use
the transmission system owned by another party to deliver the energy or
power to the counterparty.

 There have been wheeling arrangements as long as there have been

interconnections between more than two utilities. In most cases, the
development of transmission service (i.e., wheeling) rates has been based
on simplified physical models designed to facilitate commercial
arrangements.

 As long as the market was restricted to a few parties, these arrangements

were usually simple. With the introduction of many nonutility participants,
there is a need for the development of rate structures based on more
realistic models of the power system. Since the need to maintain flow
 limitations, various contracts involving flow gates or financial transmission
rights have been developed.

10.b. Available Transfer Capability:

 The Available Flowgate Capability (AFC) on a flowgate refers to the amount of

MW transfer capacity on a flowgate that remains available for additional
transmission service above and beyond the already committed and approved
uses of the transmission system.

 Existing uses of the transmission system include the generation to load

impacts on the flowgates and transmission service that has already been
sold. AFC values are time and service type dependent. An ISO calculates
Firm and Non-Firm AFC values for up to 3 years into the future from the
next hour.

 The distribution factor quantifies the incremental impact of a power transfer

on a flowgate for a particular transmission path and is expressed as a
percentage.

 An AFC zone is the smallest granular area that is modeled in AFC

calculations. All included transmission service reservations are mapped to
these AFC zones for modeling impacts and evaluation. In general, the AFC
zones are the balancing authority areas (“BAAs”) modeled in the
Interconnection Reliability Assessment Group (“IRAG”) Multiregional
Modeling Working Group (“MMWG”) models.

 An AFC path is defined by a unique source and sink that are modeled as
AFC zones. Since the ISO OASIS † uses a list of sources and sinks that may
be different than the granularity in the AFC calculation, an electrical
equivalent table is used to map the source-and-sink combinations to AFC
zones. The electrical equivalent table can also be used to map the source
and sink to a study zone that is a combination of multiple AFC Zones to
evaluate TSRs more accurately.

 The Capacity Benefit Margin (CBM) is the amount of firm transmission

transfer capability preserved by the ISO for Load Serving Entities (“LSEs”)
within a BAA to enable access by the LSEs to get generation from the
interconnected systems to meet generation reliability requirements. The
 CBM is applied as a Total Flowgate Capability (“TFC”) reduction to the
limiting element(s) of the associated flowgate.

 The Transmission Reliability Margin (TRM) is the amount of transmission

transfer capability necessary to provide reasonable assurance that the
interconnected transmission network will be secure. TRM accounts for the
inherent uncertainty in system conditions and the need for operating
flexibility to ensure reliable system operations as system conditions change.