Module 1:Principles of Communication

The word communication arises from the Latin word “commūnicāre”, which
means “to share”. Communication is the basic step for the exchange of
information.

For example, a baby in a cradle, communicates with a cry that she needs her
mother. A cow moos loudly when it is in danger. A person communicates with
the help of a language. Communication is the bridge to share.

Communication can be defined as the process of exchange of information

through means such as words, actions, signs, etc., between two or more
individuals.

Need for Communication

For any living being, while co-existing, there occurs the necessity of exchange
of some information. Whenever a need for exchange of information arises,
some means of communication should exist. While the means of
communication, can be anything such as gestures, signs, symbols, or a
language, the need for communication is inevitable.

Language and gestures play an important role in human communication, while

sounds and actions are important for animal communication. However, when
some message has to be conveyed, a communication has to be established.

Parts of Communication System

Any system which provides communication, consists of the three important
and basic parts as shown in the following figure.

 The Sender is the person who sends a message. It could be a transmitting

station from where the signal is transmitted.
 The Channel is the medium through which the message signals travel to
reach the destination.
 The Receiver is the person who receives the message. It could be a
receiving station where the signal transmitted is received.
What is a Signal?
Conveying an information by some means such as gestures, sounds, actions,
etc., can be termed as signaling. Hence, a signal can be a source of energy which
transmits some information. This signal helps to establish communication between
a sender and a receiver.

An electrical impulse or an electromagnetic wave which travels a distance to

convey a message, can be termed as a signal in communication systems.

Depending on their characteristics, signals are mainly classified into two types:
Analog and Digital. Analog and Digital signals are further classified, as shown
in the following figure.

Analog Signal
A continuous time varying signal, which represents a time varying quantity can
be termed as an Analog Signal. This signal keeps on varying with respect to
time, according to the instantaneous values of the quantity, which represents
it.

Example

Let us consider, a tap that fills a tank of 100 liters capacity in an hour (6 am to
7 am). The portion of filling the tank is varied by the varying time. Which
means, after 15 mins (6:15 am) the quarter portion of the tank gets filled,
whereas at 6:45 am, 3/4th of the tank is filled.

If you try to plot the varying portions of water in the tank, according to the
varying time, it would look like the following figure.
As the resultant shown in this image varies (increases) according to time,
this time varying quantity can be understood as Analog quantity. The signal which
represents this condition with an inclined line in the figure, is an Analog Signal.
The communication based on analog signals and analog values is called
as Analog Communication.

Digital Signal
A signal which is discrete in nature or which is non-continuous in form can be
termed as a Digital signal. This signal has individual values, denoted separately,
which are not based on the previous values, as if they are derived at that
particular instant of time.

Example

Let us consider a classroom having 20 students. If their attendance in a week

is plotted, it would look like the following figure.

In this figure, the values are separately stated. For instance, the attendance of
the class on Wednesday is 20 whereas on Saturday is 15. These values can be
considered individually and separately or discretely, hence they are called
as discrete values.
The binary digits which has only 1s and 0s are mostly termed as digital values.
Hence, the signals which represent 1s and 0s are also called as digital signals.
The communication based on digital signals and digital values is called
as Digital Communication.

Periodic Signal
Any analog or digital signal, that repeats its pattern over a period of time, is
called as a Periodic Signal. This signal has its pattern continued repeatedly and
is easy to be assumed or to be calculated.

Example

If we consider a machinery in an industry, the process that takes place one

after the other is a continuous and repeat procedure. For example, procuring
and grading the raw material, processing the material in batches, packing a
load of products one after the other etc., follow a certain procedure
repeatedly.

Such a process whether considered analog or digital, can be graphically

represented as follows.

Aperiodic Signal
Any analog or digital signal, that doesn’t repeat its pattern over a period of
time, is called as Aperiodic Signal. This signal has its pattern continued but the
pattern is not repeated and is not so easy to be assumed or to be calculated.

Example

The daily routine of a person, if considered, consists of many types of works

which take different time intervals for different works. The time interval or the
work doesn’t continuously repeat. For example, a person will not continuously
brush his teeth from morning to night, that too with the same time period.

Such a process whether considered analog or digital, can be graphically

represented as follows.

In general, the signals which are used in communication systems are analog in
nature, which are transmitted in analog or converted to digital and then
transmitted, depending upon the requirement.

But for a signal to get transmitted to a distance, without the effect of any
external interferences or noise addition and without getting faded away, it has
to undergo a process called as Modulation,

Composite signal
In data communication, composite signals are formed by combining multiple
individual signals into a single signal. This combining can occur through
various methods like modulation, multiplexing, or encoding.

For instance, in telecommunications, when you make a phone call, your voice
is converted into an electrical signal. This analog signal is composed of
different frequencies that represent the varying pitch and tone of your voice.
To transmit this signal efficiently over long distances, it's modulated onto a
carrier wave using a technique like frequency modulation (FM) or amplitude
modulation (AM).

Let's consider an example of an AM radio station transmitting music. The

station combines the audio signal (your favorite song) with a carrier wave by
varying the amplitude of the carrier wave according to the music's waveform.
This modulation results in a composite signal that carries both the original
audio information and the carrier wave.

When your radio receives this composite signal, it extracts the original audio
signal by separating it from the carrier wave using a process called
demodulation. This demodulated signal is then amplified and played through
the speakers, allowing you to hear the music.

Signal analysis in data communication

Signal analysis in data communication involves examining and understanding the characteristics of signals that carry
information. It encompasses various techniques and methodologies to study, interpret, and manipulate these signals for
effective transmission and reception of data.

Key aspects of signal analysis include:

1. Signal Types: Understanding different signal types—such as analog, digital, electromagnetic, or optical—and
their properties like frequency, amplitude, phase, and wavelength.

2. Signal Processing: Analyzing signals using mathematical tools like Fourier transforms to break them down into
constituent frequencies or using filters to extract specific frequency components.

3. Modulation and Demodulation: Studying how information is encoded onto carrier signals (modulation) and
retrieved at the receiving end (demodulation). This involves techniques like Amplitude Modulation (AM),
Frequency Modulation (FM), or Phase Shift Keying (PSK).

4. Noise Analysis: Assessing the impact of noise, interference, or distortions on signals during transmission and
developing methods to mitigate these effects.

5. Error Detection and Correction: Implementing techniques like checksums, parity bits, or error-correcting codes
to ensure accurate data transmission and reception, especially in digital communication.

6. Spectrum Analysis: Examining the frequency spectrum of signals to understand their frequency distribution and
characteristics, crucial in fields like wireless communication or radio transmission.
Signal analysis is fundamental in designing communication systems, ensuring data integrity, optimizing transmission
efficiency, and improving overall performance in various communication technologies like telecommunications, wireless
networks, the internet, and more.

Time and frequency domain representation

In data communication, signals can be represented in two primary domains: time domain and frequency domain.

Time Domain Representation: This representation focuses on how a signal changes over time. Imagine you're recording
the sound of a musical note. The amplitude of the sound wave at any given moment represents its signal in the time
domain. This representation shows how the signal varies at each point in time, portraying it as a waveform.

Frequency Domain Representation: This representation focuses on the frequency components within a signal. Using the
musical note example, if you analyze the various tones that make up that note—such as bass, midrange, and treble—
you're observing its frequency components. A Fourier Transform can break down the original signal into its constituent
frequencies, displaying the signal's frequency content or spectrum.

Introduction to Data and signal fundamentals

Data: Data refers to any information that is being communicated or transmitted. It could be text, numbers, images,
videos, or any form of information that needs to be sent from one place to another. For instance, when you send a text
message, that text itself is the data being transmitted.

Signal: A signal is a physical representation of data that can be transmitted over a communication channel. Signals can
take various forms such as electrical, electromagnetic, optical, or acoustic. These signals encode the data in a way that it
can be transmitted from one device to another. For instance, when you speak on the phone, your voice is converted into
an electrical signal that travels through the phone line to the receiver.

Fundamentals in Data Communication:

1. Encoding: Data needs to be converted into a suitable signal format for transmission. This encoding process
involves converting digital data into analog or digital signals that can traverse the communication channel. For
instance, your computer converts digital data (binary code) into electrical signals when you're streaming a video.
 2. Transmission: Signals carrying the encoded data travel through communication channels such as cables, fiber
optics, or wireless mediums. These channels may introduce noise or interference that can affect the signal
quality.

3. Reception and Decoding: At the receiving end, the transmitted signals are received and decoded back into the
original data format. For instance, your friend's device decodes the received electrical signals back into readable
text, displaying the message you sent.

4. Noise and Error Handling: During transmission, signals may encounter interference or noise which can distort
the original data. Data communication systems employ techniques to detect and correct errors that might occur,
ensuring accurate data transmission.

analog and digital signals with examples.

Analog Signals: Analog signals are continuous signals that vary smoothly and infinitely over time. They can take any
value within a range. An example of an analog signal is a traditional clock with hands. As the hands move, they smoothly
transition between all possible positions, representing continuous time.

Example of Analog Signal: Consider an analog thermometer. It measures temperature using a scale and a liquid (like
mercury) inside a tube. As the temperature changes, the mercury expands or contracts, indicating the temperature on
the scale. The mercury's level represents a continuous range of temperatures, making it an analog signal.

Digital Signals: Digital signals, on the other hand, are discrete and have specific, distinct values. They exist as a series of
discrete values representing bits (0s and 1s). Unlike analog signals, they do not have infinite variations; they change in
distinct steps or levels.

Example of Digital Signal: Think about a digital clock. Instead of hands moving smoothly to represent time, a digital clock
shows time using discrete digits (0-9) for hours and minutes. Each digit represents a specific value, and the time changes
in discrete steps, jumping from one value to the next.

In data communication, information is transmitted using both analog and digital signals:

 Analog Signals are used in older communication technologies like traditional telephones or AM/FM radio, where
sound or data is represented by continuously varying electrical signals.

 Digital Signals are prevalent in modern technologies like computers, the internet, and digital communication
systems. They use binary digits (0s and 1s) to represent information, offering advantages in terms of accuracy,
reliability, and resistance to noise over long distances.
Analog Transmission: Concepts of carrier signal, noise
Analog transmission is a transmission method of conveying information using a continuous signal which varies
in amplitude, phase, or some other property in proportion to that information. It could be the transfer of an
analog signal, using an analog modulation method such as frequency modulation (FM) or amplitude modulation
(AM), or no modulation at all.
Carrier is useful as a part of the spectrum of the modulated signal. It gives to the receiver exact timing of the
modulation process. That makes possible perfect demodulation with simple circuits. Carrier is sometimes
removed in the transmitter from the modulation result - for ex. in SSB radio. It saves power. Non-synchronous
demodulation spoils the quality of the demodulated sound, but it can still be good enough for many practical
purposes.

If you were to transmit just the audio signal, you would effectively have a single channel that everyone has to
share. They'd be using the same tiny bit of the electromagnetic spectrum. You couldn't separate what one
transmitter is sending from what another transmitter is sending. It would be like trying to have a conversation in
a room with hundreds of other people trying hold their own conversations.

Concepts of carrier signal

A carrier signal is a high-frequency waveform that carries information by being modulated with an input signal. In
telecommunications, a carrier signal is a steady, continuous waveform that is modulated to transmit data, voice, or
other information.

Think of a carrier signal as a delivery truck—it carries data from one place to another. Just like a truck carries packages, a
carrier signal carries information through cables or airwaves. For example, in Wi-Fi, the carrier signal transports your
emails and videos from your device to the internet router, just like a truck moves packages from a warehouse to your
home.
Noise

Definition: Noise in the context of data communication refers to any unwanted or undesirable electrical or
electromagnetic interference that distorts or disrupts the original signal being transmitted.

Types of Noise:

1. Thermal Noise: Also known as Johnson-Nyquist noise, it's caused by the random movement of electrons in
conductors and increases with temperature.

2. Intermodulation Noise: Arises when multiple signals pass through a nonlinear device, causing the signals to mix
and generate additional frequencies.

3. Impulse Noise: Occurs as sudden, short-duration spikes caused by external sources like lightning, power line
disturbances, or faulty electrical connections.

4. Crosstalk: When signals from one communication channel bleed into adjacent channels due to electromagnetic
interference.

Sources of Noise:

 External Sources: Natural phenomena (like lightning, cosmic radiation), electromagnetic interference from other
devices, and environmental factors.

 Internal Sources: Components within electronic devices generate noise, such as thermal noise from resistors or
shot noise from semiconductor junctions.

Effects of Noise:

 Signal Degradation: Noise interferes with the transmitted signal, leading to errors in decoding or interpretation.
  Reduced Signal Quality: It lowers the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), affecting the fidelity and clarity of the received
data.

 Data Corruption: In severe cases, noise can corrupt data, leading to data loss or incorrect interpretation of
information.

Examples:

 Radio Reception: Static or crackling sounds heard while tuning a radio are due to noise interference.

 Internet Connectivity: Slow or interrupted internet connections in crowded Wi-Fi areas can be a result of
interference from other devices, causing data packets to be corrupted or lost.

Managing noise is vital in data communication to ensure reliable and accurate transmission. Techniques like error
correction codes, shielding, and filtering help mitigate the impact of noise on signal quality.

Modulating Signal:

Think of the modulating signal as the original message you want to send. It could be your voice in a phone call, the data
in an internet connection, or music in a radio broadcast. This signal carries the information you want to transmit.

Example: If you're speaking into a microphone to make a phone call, your voice is the modulating signal. It's the original
sound or message that you want to communicate.

Modulated Signal:

Now, the modulated signal is what happens when you combine the modulating signal with a carrier signal. This process
alters the carrier signal to carry the information from the modulating signal. Modulation changes some aspect of the
carrier signal (like its amplitude, frequency, or phase) in accordance with the modulating signal.

Example of Modulated Signal: In radio transmission, your voice (the modulating signal) is combined with a specific radio
frequency (the carrier signal) using modulation techniques. The resulting signal is the modulated signal that gets
transmitted through the airwaves. When your car radio receives this signal and decodes it, you hear your voice as sound.

In essence, the modulating signal contains the information, while the modulated signal is the carrier signal altered to
carry that information.
Modulation

Two signals are involved in the process of modulation. Message signals also known as baseband signals are the band of
frequencies representing the original signal. This is the signal to be transmitted to the receiver. The frequency of such a
signal is usually low. The other signal involved with this is a high-frequency sinusoidal wave. This signal is called the
carrier signal. The frequency of carrier signals is almost always higher than that of the baseband signal. The amplitude of
the baseband signal is transferred to the high-frequency carrier. Such a higher frequency carrier is able to travel much
farther than the baseband signal.

Therefore, modulation can be defined as the process of superimposing a low-frequency signal on a high-frequency
carrier signal.

There are three types of Modulation:

 Amplitude Modulation

 Frequency Modulation

 Phase Modulation

Need for Modulation

The baseband signals are incompatible for direct transmission. For such a signal, to travel longer distances, its
strength has to be increased by modulating with a high frequency carrier wave, which doesn’t affect the
parameters of the modulating signal.

Advantages of Modulation

The antenna used for transmission, had to be very large, if modulation was not introduced. The range of
communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel to a distance without getting distorted.

Following are some of the advantages for implementing modulation in the communication systems.

 Antenna size gets reduced.

 No signal mixing occurs.
 Communication range increases.
 Multiplexing of signals occur.
 Adjustments in the bandwidth is allowed.
 Reception quality improves.
Types of Modulation

There are many types of modulations. Depending upon the modulation techniques used, they are classified as
shown in the following figure.

The types of modulations are broadly classified into continuous-wave modulation and pulse modulation.

Continuous-wave Modulation

In the continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is used as a carrier wave. This is further
divided into amplitude and angle modulation.

 If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Amplitude Modulation.
 If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating
signal, then such a technique is called as Angle Modulation.
The angle modulation is further divided into frequency and phase modulation.
o If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Frequency Modulation.
o If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Phase Modulation.

Pulse Modulation

In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is used as a carrier wave. This is further divided
into analog and digital modulation.

In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude, duration or position of a pulse is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous values of the baseband modulating signal, then such a technique is called as Pulse Amplitude
Modulation (PAM) or Pulse Duration/Width Modulation (PDM/PWM), or Pulse Position Modulation
(PPM).
In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) where the analog
signal is converted into digital form of 1s and 0s. As the resultant is a coded pulse train, this is called as PCM.
This is further developed as Delta Modulation (DM), which will be discussed in subsequent chapters. Hence,
PCM is a technique where the analog signals are converted into a digital form.

Amplitude Modulation

AM is a technique used in communication to transmit information by varying the amplitude of a carrier wave according
to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal being sent.

Imagine the carrier wave as a steady heartbeat and the message signal as the music you want to transmit. With AM,
you're adjusting the height (amplitude) of the heartbeat (carrier wave) to match the loudness of different parts of the
music (message signal). This creates a modified wave that carries the original signal.

When received, the modulated wave is separated back into the carrier wave and the original message signal. AM is
commonly used in radio broadcasting to transmit audio signals over long distances.
Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC): In this method, both the upper and lower sidebands are transmitted, but
the carrier signal is removed to make the transmission more efficient in terms of power usage. Receivers need to
reconstruct the carrier to extract the original signal.
DSB is a type of Amplitude Modulation. It has two sidebands on both sides of the carrier frequency. The terms suppress
means to remove. The suppressed carrier means to remove the carrier. Thus, DSB SC is a transmission that does not
involve the carrier component at the output of the modulator.
We can define the DSBSC transmission as: 'The transmission that produces two sidebands symmetric above and below
the carrier frequency with the carrier reduced to the lowest possible level of frequency is known as Double Sideband
Suppress Carrier transmission.'
The power is distributed in its two sidebands because the absence of carrier results in no carrier power. Thus, the cover
of DSBSC is more as compared to the Amplitude Modulation.

Double Sideband Transmitted Carrier (DSB-TC): Similar to DSB-SC, both sidebands are transmitted, but here, the carrier
signal is also sent along with the sidebands. It's less power-efficient than DSB-SC but simpler for receivers to
demodulate.

Single Sideband (SSB): Here, only one sideband (either upper or lower) is transmitted, along with the carrier or without
it. SSB is more efficient in terms of bandwidth and power compared to AM and DSB techniques.

Each method has its advantages and applications based on factors like power efficiency, bandwidth utilization, and
complexity of reception and demodulation.

Frequency modulation

Frequency Modulation (FM) is a method of encoding information onto a carrier wave by varying the frequency of the
wave in proportion to the amplitude of the signal being sent. It's like adjusting the pitch of a song to convey different
emotions—the message signal changes the frequency of the carrier wave.

For instance, in FM radio, when you turn the dial to change stations, you're tuning into different carrier frequencies. The
modulation in FM ensures that changes in the amplitude of the audio signal lead to proportional changes in the
frequency of the transmitted signal, which results in varying the pitch of the received sound. This method is known for
its resistance to amplitude-based noise, providing clearer audio quality compared to AM radio.
  Narrowband FM (NFM): This refers to Frequency Modulation where the variation in frequency (the change in
pitch, if you will) stays within a limited range. It's like singing a song where you stick to a relatively small range of
notes. Narrowband FM is used in applications where conserving bandwidth is important, such as in two-way
radio communications or certain types of data transmission.

 Wideband FM (WFM): In contrast, Wideband FM involves a broader variation in frequency. Picture singing a
song where you explore a wider range of notes and pitches. Wideband FM allows for a larger spectrum of
frequencies, resulting in better audio fidelity and clarity. It's commonly used in high-fidelity FM radio broadcasts
where quality is prioritized over conserving bandwidth.

The distinction lies in the range of frequencies used during the modulation process—narrowband for conserving
resources, and wideband for higher-quality transmission.

Phase Modulation

Phase modulation is defined as the process of varying the phase of the carrier signal linearly with the instantaneous
value of the message signal. The waveforms of a message signal and the phase-modulated signal are shown below:
Digital to Analog Conversion

Digital Signal – A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete values; at any given
time it can only take on one of a finite number of values.
Analog Signal – An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature of the signal is a
representation of some other time varying quantity i.e., analogous to another time varying signal.
The following techniques can be used for Digital to Analog Conversion:
1. Amplitude Shift keying – Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which carrier signal is analog and data
to be modulated is digital. The amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
The binary signal when modulated gives a zero value when the binary data represents 0 while gives the carrier
output when data is 1. The frequency and phase of the carrier signal remain constant.

Advantages of amplitude shift Keying –

 It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
 The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes it comparatively inexpensive.
 It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high bandwidth efficiency.
Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying –
 It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could be lost due to this.
 It has lower power efficiency.

2. Frequency Shift keying – In

this modulation the frequency of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary data.
The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary high input and is low in
frequency for a binary low input. The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant.

Advantages of frequency shift Keying –

 Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise problems beset by ASK.
 It has lower chances of an error.
 It provides high signal to noise ratio.
 The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low data rate application.
Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying –
 It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less bandwidth efficiency.
 It has lower power efficiency.

3. Phase Shift keying – In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary
data.The amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.

It is further categorized as follows:

1. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK):
BPSK also known as phase reversal keying or 2PSK is the simplest form of phase shift keying. The Phase of
the carrier wave is changed according to the two binary inputs. In Binary Phase shift keying, difference of
180 phase shift is used between binary 1 and binary 0.
 This is regarded as the most robust digital modulation technique and is used for long distance wireless
communication.
2. Quadrature phase shift keying:
This technique is used to increase the bit rate i.e we can code two bits onto one single element. It uses four
phases to encode two bits per symbol. QPSK uses phase shifts of multiples of 90 degrees.
It has double data rate carrying capacity compare to BPSK as two bits are mapped on each constellation
points.
Advantages of phase shift Keying –
 It is a more power efficient modulation technique as compared to ASK and FSK.
 It has lower chances of an error.
 It allows data to be carried along a communication signal much more efficiently as compared to FSK.
Disadvantages of phase shift Keying –
 It offers low bandwidth efficiency.
 The detection and recovery algorithms of binary data is very complex.
 It is a non coherent reference signal.
Digital Transmission
Data or information can be stored in two ways, analog and digital. For a computer to use the data, it must be in discrete
digital form.Similar to data, signals can also be in analog and digital form. To transmit data digitally, it needs to be first
converted to digital form.
Digital-to-Digital Conversion
This section explains how to convert digital data into digital signals. It can be done in two ways, line coding and block
coding. For all communications, line coding is necessary whereas block coding is optional.

Line Coding
The process for converting digital data into digital signal is said to be Line Coding. Digital data is found in binary format.It
is represented (stored) internally as series of 1s and 0s.

Digital signal is denoted by discreet signal, which represents digital data.There are three types of line coding schemes
available:

Uni-polar Encoding
Unipolar encoding schemes use single voltage level to represent data. In this case, to represent binary 1, high voltage is
transmitted and to represent 0, no voltage is transmitted. It is also called Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero, because there is
no rest condition i.e. it either represents 1 or 0.

Polar Encoding
Polar encoding scheme uses multiple voltage levels to represent binary values. Polar encodings is available in four types:
Polar Non-Return to Zero (Polar NRZ)
It uses two different voltage levels to represent binary values. Generally, positive voltage represents 1 and negative
value represents 0. It is also NRZ because there is no rest condition.
NRZ scheme has two variants: NRZ-L and NRZ-I.
NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered whereas NRZ-I changes voltage when a 1 is
encountered.
Return to Zero (RZ)
Problem with NRZ is that the receiver cannot conclude when a bit ended and when the next bit is started, in case when
sender and receiver’s clock are not synchronized.

RZ uses three voltage levels, positive voltage to represent 1, negative voltage to represent 0 and zero voltage for none.
Signals change during bits not between bits.
Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-L. Bit time is divided into two halves. It transits in the middle of
the bit and changes phase when a different bit is encountered.
Differential Manchester
This encoding scheme is a combination of RZ and NRZ-I. It also transit at the middle of the bit but changes phase only
when 1 is encountered.

Bipolar Encoding
Bipolar encoding uses three voltage levels, positive, negative and zero. Zero voltage represents binary 0 and bit 1 is
represented by altering positive and negative voltages.

Block Coding
To ensure accuracy of the received data frame redundant bits are used. For example, in even-parity, one parity bit is
added to make the count of 1s in the frame even. This way the original number of bits is increased. It is called Block
Coding.
Block coding is represented by slash notation, mB/nB.Means, m-bit block is substituted with n-bit block where n > m.
Block coding involves three steps:
Division,
Substitution
Combination.
After block coding is done, it is line coded for transmission.

Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Microphones create analog voice and camera creates analog videos, which are treated is analog data. To transmit this
analog data over digital signals, we need analog to digital conversion.
Analog data is a continuous stream of data in the wave form whereas digital data is discrete. To convert analog wave
into digital data, we use Pulse Code Modulation (PCM).
PCM is one of the most commonly used method to convert analog data into digital form. It involves three steps:
Sampling
Quantization
Encoding.
Sampling

The analog signal is sampled every T interval. Most important factor in sampling is the rate at which analog signal is
sampled. According to Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate must be at least two times of the highest frequency of the
signal.
Quantization

Sampling yields discrete form of continuous analog signal. Every discrete pattern shows the amplitude of the analog
signal at that instance. The quantization is done between the maximum amplitude value and the minimum amplitude
value. Quantization is approximation of the instantaneous analog value.
Encoding
In encoding, each approximated value is then converted into binary format.

Transmission Modes
The transmission mode decides how data is transmitted between two computers.The binary data in the form of 1s and
0s can be sent in two different modes: Parallel and Serial.
Parallel Transmission

The binary bits are organized in-to groups of fixed length. Both sender and receiver are connected in parallel with the
equal number of data lines. Both computers distinguish between high order and low order data lines. The sender sends
all the bits at once on all lines.Because the data lines are equal to the number of bits in a group or data frame, a
complete group of bits (data frame) is sent in one go. Advantage of Parallel transmission is high speed and disadvantage
is the cost of wires, as it is equal to the number of bits sent in parallel.

Serial Transmission
In serial transmission, bits are sent one after another in a queue manner. Serial transmission requires only one
communication channel.

Serial transmission can be either asynchronous or synchronous.

Asynchronous Serial Transmission
It is named so because there’is no importance of timing. Data-bits have specific pattern and they help receiver recognize
the start and end data bits.For example, a 0 is prefixed on every data byte and one or more 1s are added at the end.
Two continuous data-frames (bytes) may have a gap between them.

Synchronous Serial Transmission

Timing in synchronous transmission has importance as there is no mechanism followed to recognize start and end data
bits.There is no pattern or prefix/suffix method. Data bits are sent in burst mode without maintaining gap between bytes
(8-bits). Single burst of data bits may contain a number of bytes. Therefore, timing becomes very important.
It is up to the receiver to recognize and separate bits into bytes.The advantage of synchronous transmission is high
speed, and it has no overhead of extra header and footer bits as in asynchronous transmission.

Problems with digital transmission

Digital transmission offers many advantages, but it's not without its challenges. Some common problems include:
1. Noise and Interference: Just like with analog signals, digital signals can suffer from noise and interference during
transmission. This can lead to errors in decoding the transmitted data.
2. Attenuation: Digital signals can weaken as they travel over long distances or through certain mediums, leading
to a loss of signal strength and potential errors in reception.
3. Timing and Synchronization: Ensuring that the sender and receiver are synchronized is crucial in digital
transmission. Timing discrepancies or synchronization issues can cause data loss or corruption.
4. Bandwidth Limitations: Higher data rates require more bandwidth. In cases where the available bandwidth is
limited, transmitting large amounts of digital data can become challenging.
5. Error Detection and Correction: While digital signals allow for error detection and correction mechanisms, they
aren't foolproof. Sometimes errors can occur that exceed the capability of these mechanisms to correct.
Addressing these challenges involves employing various techniques such as error detection and correction codes, signal
regeneration, amplification, and sophisticated modulation schemes to enhance the reliability and efficiency of digital
transmission systems.

Block Coding in Digital Electronics

In digital electronics, block coding is a technique of encoding data into a specific format. It is
mainly used to detect and correct errors occurred in the information during transmission and
storage. This is done by adding a block code of redundant information to the main data.

Block coding is mainly employed to create a robust method of data transmission and
storage. In the block coding, data is encoded by splitting it into multiple blocks of a fixed
size and applying encoding techniques to each of these blocks separately.
In block coding, the input data is taken and transformed into a longer block of encoded data
by adding some redundant data to it. This addition redundant data helps to detect and
correct errors that occur during transmission and storage.

Block coding method generally works on binary data which is represented in the form of 0s
and 1s. To perform block coding, there are various types of techniques are available, such
as parity check codes, Hamming codes, Reed-Solomon codes, BCH codes, etc. Where, the
parity check codes is the simplest technique to perform block coding. However, this
technique has some limitations, such as it can detect only single-bit errors. The other block
coding technique are much advanced and can detect as well as correct the errors.

Block coding is extensively used in various fields of digital electronics, such as in wireless
communication, satellite data communication, optical fiber communication, digital data
storage devices, and more.

Types of Block Codes used in Digital Electronics

In digital electronics, there are several different types of block codes used to perform block
coding of data. Some common types of block codes are described below:

Parity Check Codes

Parity check codes are the simplest block codes used for error detection in digital
electronics. In this block coding technique, an extra parity bit is included with each block of
data. The calculation of the parity bit is done as per the number of 1s in the block of data.
However, the parity check codes can detect only 1-bit errors, also they cannot correct them.

Hamming Codes

Hamming codes are relatively advanced codes than parity check codes used for block coding
in digital electronics. These codes are able to detect as well as correct 1-bit errors. This
method adds additional redundant bits to each data block to create a specific code-word.
The positions of the redundant bits in the code-word allow for detection and correction of
errors in the data.

Reed-Solomon Codes

Reed-Solomon codes are highly advanced codes used for block coding in digital electronic
systems where robust error detection and correction is desired. These codes have ability to
detect and correct multi-bit errors in a data block. The operation of Reed-Solomon Codes is
based on the combination of parity checks and polynomial mathematics, where parity check
detects errors in the data block, while the error locator polynomials correct them. Reed-
Solomon codes are extensively used in the field of digital communication, satellite
communication and data storage devices.

Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH) Codes

BCH codes are another type of block codes used for error detection and correct in data
blocks. These codes provide higher flexibility over Reed-Solomon codes in terms of number
of errors that they can correct. BCH codes are mainly used where error correction is
required multiple times like in magnetic storage devices.

Convolution Codes

Convolution codes are another type of block codes used for error correction. These are also
known as turbo codes. These codes involve the use of parallel concatenated convolution
codes for error correction in data block. Convolution codes use an iterative decoding process
to provide excellent error correction capabilities. These codes are primarily used in wireless
and deep-space communications, where noise levels are very high.

Low-Density Parity-Check (LDPC) Codes

LDPC codes are types of error correction codes known for their high performance and low
complexity. These codes are mainly employed in modern digital communication systems like
4G, 5G, Wi-Fi, etc. for error correction.

Advantages of Block Coding in Digital Electronics

Block coding offers several benefits in the field digital electronics. Some key advantages of
block coding in digital electronics are listed below:

 Block coding improves the integrity of the received data by error detection and correction occurred during
transmission and storage.
 Block coding improves overall reliability of the data transmission.
 Block coding increases immunity of the communication channel against noise and interference.
 Block coding allows for efficient utilization of storage space and channel bandwidth through the error
correction.

Disadvantages of Block Coding in Digital Electronics

Apart from various advantages, block coding also has some disadvantages which are given
below:

 Block coding increases redundancy in the data due to addition of extra bits for error correction.
  Block coding increases the overall data size of the block code, which consumes extra storage space or
channel bandwidth.
 Block coding can reduce overall performance of the system, due to additional encoding and decoding
processes.
 Block coding can cause delays in data transmission.
 Block coding involves the utilization of complex algorithms and hardware resources that introduce in its
implementation.

Conclusion
Block coding is a method of error detection and correction used in data communication and
storage to ensure the integrity of the data. It involves the addition of redundancy to the
original data that allows for detection and correction of errors occurred during transmission
and storage of the data. Overall, block coding is an essential process in data transmission
and storage to ensure accuracy and reliability of the digital information.

What is Scrambling in Digital Electronics ?

A computer network is designed to send information from one point to another. Data that we send can
either be digital or analog. Also, signals that represent data can also be digital or analog. Thus to send
data by using signals, we must be able to convert the data into signals, this conversion can be Analog to
Analog, Analog to Digital, Digital to Analog, or Digital to Digital. Digital to Digital conversion
involves three techniques – Line Coding, Block Coding, and Scrambling. Line Coding is always
needed, whereas Block Coding and Scrambling may or may not be needed depending upon the
need. Scrambling is a technique that does not increase the number of bits and does provide
synchronization. The problem with techniques like Bipolar AMI(Alternate Mark Inversion) is that
continuous sequence of zero’s create synchronization problems one solution to this is Scrambling.
Prerequisite: Block Coding, Line Coding
There are two common scrambling techniques:
1. B8ZS(Bipolar with 8-zero substitution)
2. HDB3(High-density bipolar3-zero)
B8ZS(Bipolar with 8-zero substitution): This technique is similar to Bipolar AMI except when eight
consecutive zero-level voltages are encountered they are replaced by the sequence, “000VB0VB”.
Note:
 V(Violation), is a non-zero voltage which means the signal has the same polarity as the previous
non-zero voltage. Thus it is a violation of the general AMI technique.
 B(Bipolar), is also a non-zero voltage level that is in accordance with the AMI rule (i.e., opposite
polarity from the previous non-zero voltage).
Example: Data = 100000000
Note: Both figures (left and right one) are correct, depending upon the last non-zero voltage signal of
the previous data sequence (i.e., sequence before current data sequence “100000000”).
HDB3(High-density bipolar3-zero): In this technique, four consecutive zero-level voltages are
replaced with a sequence “000V” or “B00V”. Rules for using these sequences:
 If the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution is odd, the substitution pattern will be
“000V”, this helps in maintaining a total number of nonzero pulses even.
 If the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution is even, the substitution pattern will be
“B00V”. Hence even the number of nonzero pulses is maintained again.

Analog to Digital Conversion

Digital Signal: A digital signal is a signal that represents data as a sequence of discrete values; at any
given time it can only take on one of a finite number of values.
Analog Signal: An analog signal is any continuous signal for which the time varying feature of the
signal is a representation of some other time-varying quantity i.e., analogous to another time varying
signal.
Importance of Analog to Digital Conversion
 The main role of ADC in modern technology development process is the transition of voice
communication systems from outdated analogue signal processing to the more advanced voice over
IP, or VoIP, systems of today is largely due to the contribution.
 The teletypewriters and other computer input devices needed to be connected to a modem which
was connected to a mainframe or other front end computer system to communicate with the
required computer systems. In contrast to the ultrahigh-speed networks of today, modem
transmission speeds were modest to process.
 The systems for smaller office applications and the digital private branch exchange, or PBX, were
developed by using ADC technology as the foundation to process properly.
Techniques of Analog-to-Digital Conversion
The following techniques can be used for Analog to Digital Conversion –
a. PULSE CODE MODULATION
The most common technique to change an analog signal to digital data is called pulse code modulation
(PCM). A PCM encoder has the following three processes:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding
Low pass filter : The low pass filter eliminates the high frequency components present in the input
analog signal to ensure that the input signal to sampler is free from the unwanted frequency
components. This is done to avoid aliasing of the message signal.
1. Sampling – The first step in PCM is sampling. Sampling is a process of measuring the amplitude of
a continuous-time signal at discrete instants, converting the continuous signal into a discrete signal.
There are three sampling methods: (i) Ideal Sampling: In ideal Sampling also known as
Instantaneous sampling pulses from the analog signal are sampled. This is an ideal sampling

method and cannot be easily implemented. (ii) Natural Sampling: Natural Sampling is a
practical method of sampling in which pulse have finite width equal to T.The result is a sequence of
samples that retain the shape of the analog signal.

(iii) Flat top sampling: In

comparison to natural sampling flat top sampling can be easily obtained. In this sampling technique,
the top of the samples remains constant by using a circuit. This is the most common sampling

method used.
Nyquist Theorem: One important consideration is the sampling rate or frequency. According to the
Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the highest frequency contained in the
signal. It is also known as the minimum sampling rate and given by: Fs =2*fh
2. Quantization – The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values between the
maximum and minimum amplitudes of the signal. The set of amplitudes can be infinite with non-
integral values between two limits. The following are the steps in Quantization:
 1. We assume that the signal has amplitudes between Vmax and Vmin
2. We divide it into L zones each of height d where, d= (Vmax- Vmin)/ L

3. The value at the top of each sample in the graph shows the actual amplitude.
4. The normalized pulse amplitude modulation(PAM) value is calculated using the formula
amplitude/d.
5. After this we calculate the quantized value which the process selects from the middle of each
zone.
6. The Quantized error is given by the difference between quantized value and normalised PAM
value.
7. The Quantization code for each sample based on quantization levels at the left of the graph.
3. Encoding – The digitization of the analog signal is done by the encoder. After each sample is
quantized and the number of bits per sample is decided, each sample can be changed to an n bit
code. Encoding also minimizes the bandwidth used. Note that the number of bits for each sample is
determined from the number of quantization levels. If the number of quantization levels is L, the
number of bits is n bit = log 2 L.
b. DELTA MODULATION
Since PCM is a very complex technique, other techniques have been developed to reduce the
complexity of PCM. The simplest is delta Modulation. Delta Modulation finds the change from the
previous value. Modulator – The modulator is used at the sender site to create a stream of bits from an
analog signal. The process records a small positive change called delta. If the delta is positive, the
process records a 1 else the process records a 0. The modulator builds a second signal that resembles a
staircase. The input signal is then compared with this gradually made staircase signal.

We have the following rules for output:

1. If the input analog signal is higher than the last value of the staircase signal, increase delta by 1, and
the bit in the digital data is 1.
2. If the input analog signal is lower than the last value of the staircase signal, decrease delta by 1, and
the bit in the digital data is 0.
Demodulator – The demodulator takes the digital data and, using the staircase maker and the delay
unit, creates the analog signal. The created analog signal, however, needs to pass through a low-pass
filter for smoothing.
c. ADAPTIVE DELTA MODULATION
The performance of a delta modulator can be improved significantly by making the step size of the
modulator assume a time-varying form. A larger step-size is needed where the message has a steep
slope of modulating signal and a smaller step-size is needed where the message has a small slope. The
size is adapted according to the level of the input signal. This method is known as adaptive delta
modulation (ADM).

Applications
 Digital Signal Processing: In this process, the systems for processing, storing, or transporting
almost any analogue signal into digital format require ADCs to perform well. Let’s an example, in
TV tuner cards this is use as fast video analog-to-digital converters.
 Recording Music System: The modern digital audio workstation-based sound recording and music
reproduction technologies both are basically rely heavily on analog-to-digital converters.
 Scientific Instruments or Projects: The digital imaging systems are normally use analog-to-digital
converters for digitizing the instruments and projects pixels.