KALOL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND RESEARCH CENTRE,

KALOL
Electrical Department

Lecture notes of

SIGNAL AND SYSTEM (3150912)

Semester: - 5TH

Prepared By:-

Prof. Kiran Patel

HOD

Department of Electrical Engineering

KITRC, Kalol
 1. Introduction to signal and system

1.1 Introduction
What is Signal?
Signal is a time varying physical phenomenon which is intended to convey information.
OR
Signal is a function of time.
OR
Signal is a function of one or more independent variables, which contain some information. Example:
voice signal, video signal, signals on telephone wires etc.
Note: Noise is also a signal, but the information conveyed by noise is unwanted hence it is considered as
undesirable.
Examples of signals include :
• A voltage signal: voltage across two points varying as a function of time.
A force pattern: force varying as a function of 2-dimensional space.
A photograph: color and intensity as a function of 2-dimensional space.
A video signal: color and intensity as a function of 2-dimensional space and time.

What is System?
System is a device or combination of devices, which can operate on signals and produces corresponding
response. Input to a system is called as excitation and output from it is called as response. For one or
more inputs, the system can have one or more outputs.
Example: Communication System
• Examples of systems include :
• 1. An oscilloscope: takes in a voltage signal, outputs a 2-dimensional image characteristic of the
voltage signal.
2. A computer monitor: inputs voltage pulses from the CPU and outputs a time varying display.
3 An accelerating mass : force as a function of time may be looked at as the input signal, and
velocity as a function of time as the output signal.
4 A capacitance: terminal voltage signal may be looked at as the input, current signal as the
output.
1.2 Application of signal and system
Our bodies are constantly communicating information about our health. This information can be captured
through physiological instruments that measure heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen saturation levels, blood
glucose, nerve conduction, brain activity and so forth. Traditionally, such measurements are taken at
specific points in time and noted on a patient’s chart. Physicians actually see less than one percent of
these values as they make their rounds and treatment decisions are made based upon these isolated
readings.
Biomedical signal processing involves the analysis of these measurements to provide useful information
upon which clinicians can make decisions. Engineers are discovering new ways to process these signals
using a variety of mathematical formulae and algorithms. Working with traditional bio-measurement
tools, the signals can be computed by software to provide physicians with real-time data and greater
insights to aid in clinical assessments. Industrial processes are procedures
involving chemical, physical, electrical or mechanical steps to aid in the manufacturing of an item or
items, usually carried out on a very large scale. Industrial processes are the key components of heavy
industry.
• Digital Signal Processing is the way of life of current generation. You are surrounded by
innumerable devices which do digital signal processing around you. Most of these devices were
analog 2–3 decades before. Now, all of them are digital.
• Examples:
• Television. All the present day TVs are digital. They do a lot of digital processing of video, audio
signal to present them in a better way.
• Mobile Phones. All mobile phones do a lot of digital signal processing. They process our speech
digitally to remove background noise, echo etc. They improve the quality of your images you
click using digital image processing. They enhance the quality of the video you are seeing using
digital signal processing. They record and play audio signal using digital signal processing.
• Watches. (many are using analog watches even today)
• Cameras. All cameras that you use now a days are digital. The name itself says it. DIGITAL
CAMERA
• All the printers you use are digital.
• Not to forget, all the computers you use for any purpose have been digital all along.
• Some of the devices, though they don’t process digital signals as such, use digital data as their
way of representation.
1.3 Representation of signal
The process of (electronic) communication involves the generation, transmission and reception of various
types of signals. The communication process becomes fairly difficult, because: a) the transmitted signals
may have to travel long distances (there by undergoing severe attenuation) before they can reach the
destination i.e., the receiver. b) of imperfections of the channel over which the signals have to travel c) of
interference due to other signals sharing the same channel and d) of noise at the receiver input .
Mathematically, signals are represented as a function of one or more independent variables.
• For instance a black & white video signal intensity is dependent on x, y coordinates and time t f(x,y,t)
• On this course, we shall be exclusively concerned with signals that are a function of a single variable:
time
1.4 Classification of signals
Analog and Digital signal
Analog signal: A signal that is defined for every instants of time is known as analog signal. Analog
signals are continuous in amplitude and continuous in time. It is denoted by x(t). It is also called as
Continuous time signal. Example for Continuous time signal is shown in Fig.
Digital signal: The signals that are discrete in time and quantized in amplitude is called digital signal.

Signals are classified into the following categories:

Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals
Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals
Even and Odd Signals
Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
Energy and Power Signals
Real and Imaginary Signals
Continuous time and discrete time signal
Continuous time signal: A signal that is defined for every instants of time is known as continuous time
signal. Continuous time signals are continuous in amplitude and continuous in time. It is denoted by x(t)
and shown in Fig Discrete time signal: A signal that is defined for discrete instants of time is known as
discrete time signal. Discrete time signals are continuous in amplitude and discrete in time. It is also
obtained by sampling a continuous time signal. It is denoted by x(n) and shown in Fig 1.3.
Even (symmetric) and Odd (Anti-symmetric) signal Continuous domain:
Even signal: A signal that exhibits symmetry with respect to t=0 is called even signal Even signal
satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡) Odd signal: A signal that exhibits anti-symmetry with respect to t=0 is
called odd signal Odd signal satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑡) = −𝑥(−𝑡) Even part 𝒙𝒆(𝒕) and Odd part 𝒙𝟎(𝒕) of
continuous time signal 𝒙 (𝒕) : Even part 𝑥𝑒( 𝑡) = 1 /2 [𝑥( 𝑡) + 𝑥 (−𝑡) ] Odd part 𝑥𝑜 (𝑡) = 1 /2 [𝑥( 𝑡) – 𝑥( −𝑡)
]
Discrete domain: Even signal: A signal that exhibits symmetry with respect to n=0 is called even signal
Even signal satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑛) = 𝑥(−𝑛). Odd signal: A signal that exhibits anti-symmetry with
respect to n=0 is called odd signal Odd signal satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑛) = −𝑥(−𝑛).
Even part 𝑥𝑒( n) = 1 /2 [𝑥( n) + 𝑥 (−n) ] Odd part 𝑥𝑜 (n) = 1 /2 [𝑥( n) – 𝑥( −n) ]
Periodic and Aperiodic signal
Periodic signal: A signal is said to periodic if it repeats again and again over a certain period of time.
Aperiodic signal: A signal that does not repeat at a definite interval of time is called aperiodic signal.
Continuous domain: A Continuous time signal is said to periodic if it satisfies the condition 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡 +
𝑇) 𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
If the above condition is not satisfied then the signal is said to be aperiodic Fundamental time period 𝐓 =
𝟐𝛑/Ω , where Ω is fundamental angular frequency in rad/sec Discrete domain: A Discrete time signal is
said to periodic if it satisfies the condition 𝑥 (𝑛) = 𝑥 (𝑛 + 𝑁) 𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑁 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
If the above condition is not satisfied then the signal is said to be aperiodic Fundamental time period 𝐍 =
𝟐𝛑𝐦/𝛚 , where ω is fundamental angular frequency in rad/sec, 𝑚 is smallest positive integer that makes
N as positive integer
Energy and Power signal
Energy signal: The signal which has finite energy and zero average power is called energy signal. The
non periodic signals like exponential signals will have constant energy and so non periodic signals are
energy signals. i.e., For energy signal, 0 < 𝐸 < ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = 0
Power signal: The signal which has finite average power and infinite energy is called power signal. The
periodic signals like sinusoidal complex exponential signals will have constant power and so periodic
signals are power signals. i.e., For power signal, 0 < 𝑃 < ∞ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐸 = ∞
For Continuous time signals,

Deterministic and Random signals

Deterministic signal: A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainity over the signal at any
instant of time i.e., its instantaneous value can be predicted. It can be represented by mathematical
equation. Example: sinusoidal signal
Random signal (Non-Deterministic signal): A signal is said to be random if there is uncertainity over the
signal at any instant of time i.e., its instantaneous value cannot be predicted. It cannot be represented by
mathematical equation. Example: noise signal

Causal and Non-causal signal

Continuous domain:
Causal signal: A signal is said to be causal if it is defined for t≥0. 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 (𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
Non-causal signal: A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for t< 0 or for both 𝑡 < 0 and 𝑡 ≥ 0 𝑖.
𝑒., 𝑥 (𝑡) ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0 When a non-causal signal is defined only 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0 it is called anti causal system.
Discrete domain:
Causal signal: A signal is said to be causal, if it is defined for n≥0. 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑥 𝑛 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
Non-causal signal: A signal is said to be non-causal, if it is defined for n< 0 or for both n < 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 ≥ 0 𝑖.
𝑒., 𝑥 (𝑛) ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0 When a non-causal signal is defined only for 𝑛 < 0 it is called anti causal system.
Real and Imaginary Signals
A signal is said to be real when it satisfies the condition x = x*t
 A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition x = -x* t
Example: If xt = 3 then x*t =3*=3 here xt is a real signal. If xt = 3j then x*t =3j* = -3j = -x hence x is a
odd signal.
1.5 Basic(Elementary or Standard) continuous time signals
Step signal
Unit Step signal is defined as 𝑢 (𝑡) = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0

Ramp signal
Unit ramp signal is defined as 𝑟(𝑡) = 𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0

Parabolic signal
Unit Parabolic signal is defined as 𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑡2/ 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0

Relation between Unit Step signal, Unit ramp signal and Unit Parabolic signal:
Unit Pulse signal is defined as ∏ (𝑡) = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≤ 1 /2
= 0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤he𝑟e

Impulse signal Unit Impulse signal is defined as

Exponential signal
Real Exponential signal is defined as 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴𝑒𝑎𝑡 where A is amplitude Depending on the value of ‘a’ we
get dc signal or growing exponential signal or decaying exponential signal
Signum function
Sgn(t) = 1 for t > 0
= -1 for t ˂ 0

Rectangular pulse
Rect(t) = 1 for -1/2 ˂ t ˂ ½
= 0 elsewhere
1.6 Basic(Elementary or Standard) Discrete time signals
Step signal
Unit Step signal is defined as 𝑢 (𝑛) = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0

Unit Ramp signal

Unit Ramp signal is defined as 𝑟 (𝑛) = 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0
= 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0

Pulse signal (Rectangular pulse function)

Pulse signal is defined as 𝑥 (𝑛) = 𝐴 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑛2
= 0 𝑒𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒

Unit Impulse signal

Unit Impulse signal is defined as 𝛿 (𝑛) = 1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 0
𝛿 (𝑛) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≠ 0

Exponential signal
Real Exponential signal is defined as 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0
 Complex Exponential signal is defined as 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑗 (𝜔0𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0𝑛 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0𝑛] 𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥𝑟(𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔0𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑥𝑖 (𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔0n

1.7 Classification of System

• Continuous time and Discrete time system
• Linear and Non-Linear system
• Static and Dynamic system
• Time invariant and Time variant system
• Causal and Non-Causal system
• Stable and Unstable system
Continuous time and Discrete time system
Continuous time system: Continuous time system operates on a continuous time signal (input or
excitation) and produces another continuous time signal (output or response) which is shown in Fig. The
signal 𝑥(𝑡) is transformed by the system into signal 𝑦(𝑡), this transformation can be expressed as,
Response 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑇 𝑥 (𝑡) where 𝑥(𝑡) is input signal, 𝑦(𝑡) is output signal, and T denotes transformation
Discrete time system: Discrete time system operates on a discrete time signal (input or excitation) and
produces another discrete time signal (output or response) which is shown in Fig. The signal 𝑥(𝑛) is
transformed by the system into signal 𝑦(𝑛), this transformation can be expressed as, Response 𝑦 (𝑛) = 𝑇 𝑥
(𝑛) where x(n) is input signal, y(n) is output signal, and T denotes transformation

Linear system and Non Linear system

Continuous time domain:
Linear system: A system is said to be linear if it obeys superposition theorem. Superposition theorem
states that the response of a system to a weighted sum of the signals is equal to the corresponding
weighted sum of responses to each of the individual input signals.
Condition for Linearity: 𝑇 𝑎𝑥1(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥2(𝑡) = 𝑎𝑦1(𝑡) + 𝑏𝑦2(𝑡)
𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦1 (𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦2 (𝑡) 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡h𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦
Non Linear system: A system is said to be Non linear if it does not obeys superposition theorem.
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑇 𝑎𝑥1( 𝑡) + 𝑏𝑥2 (𝑡) ≠ 𝑎𝑦1 (𝑡) + 𝑏𝑦2(𝑡)
where y1 (t) and y2 (t) are the responses of x1 (t) and x2(t) respectively
Discrete time domain:
Linear system: A system is said to be linear if it obeys superposition theorem. Superposition theorem
states that the response of a system to a weighted sum of the signals is equal to the corresponding
weighted sum of responses to each of the individual input signals.
Condition for Linearity: 𝑇 𝑎𝑥1(n) + 𝑏𝑥2(n) = 𝑎𝑦1(n) + 𝑏𝑦2(n)
𝑤h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑦1 (n) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦2 (n) 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡h𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑥1 (n) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥2 (n) 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑦
Non Linear system: A system is said to be Non linear if it does not obeys superposition theorem.
𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑇 𝑎𝑥1( n) + 𝑏𝑥2 (n) ≠ 𝑎𝑦1 (n) + 𝑏𝑦2(n)
where y1 (n) and y2 (n) are the responses of x1 (n) and x2(n) respectively
Static (Memoryless) and Dynamic (Memory) system
Continuous time domain:
Static system: A system is said to be memoryless or static if the response of the system is due to present
input alone.
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥2(𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡)
Dynamic system: A system is said to be memory or dynamic if the response of the system depends on
factors other than present input also.
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 2𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(−𝑡)
𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥2(𝑡) + 𝑥(2𝑡)
Discrete time domain:
Static system: A system is said to be memoryless or static if the response of the system is due to present
input alone.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛)
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥2 (𝑛) + 3𝑥(𝑛)
Dynamic system: A system is said to be memory or dynamic if the response of the system depends on
factors other than present input also.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 2𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑥(−𝑛)
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥2(1 − 𝑛) + 𝑥(2𝑛)
Time invariant (Shift invariant) and Time variant (Shift variant) system
Continuous time domain:
Time invariant system: A system is said to time invariant if the relationship between the input and output
does not change with time. If 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑇𝑥(𝑡)
Then 𝑇 𝑥 (𝑡 − 𝑡0) = 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡0) should be satisfied for the system to be time invariant
Time variant system: A system is said to time variant if the relationship between the input and output
changes with time. If 𝑦 (𝑡) = 𝑇 𝑥 (𝑡)
Then 𝑇 𝑥 (𝑡 − 𝑡0) ≠ 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑡0) should be satisfied for the system to be time variant
Discrete time domain:
Time invariant system: A system is said to time invariant if the relationship between the input and output
does not change with time. If 𝑦(n) = 𝑇𝑥(n)
Then 𝑇 𝑥 (n − n0) = 𝑦(n − n0) should be satisfied for the system to be time invariant
Time variant system: A system is said to time variant if the relationship between the input and output
changes with time. If 𝑦 (n) = 𝑇 𝑥 (n)
Then 𝑇 𝑥 (n− n0) ≠ 𝑦(n − n0) should be satisfied for the system to be time variant
Causal and Non-Causal system
Continuous time domain:
Causal system: A system is said to be causal if the response of a system at any instant of time depends
only on the present input, past input and past output but does not depends upon the future input and future
output. Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 3𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1)
A system is said to be causal if impulse response h(𝑡) is zero for negative values of 𝑡
i.e., h(𝑡) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
Non-Causal system: A system is said to be Non-causal if the response of a system at any instant of time
depends on the future input and also on the present input, past input, past output.
Example: 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡 + 2) + 𝑥(𝑡 − 1) 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑥(−𝑡) + 𝑥(𝑡 + 4) A system is said to be non-causal if impulse
response h(𝑡) is non-zero for negative values of 𝑡
i.e., h(𝑡) ≠ 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
Discrete time domain:
Causal system: A system is said to be causal if the response of a system at any instant of time depends
only on the present input, past input and past output but does not depends upon the future input.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 3𝑥(𝑛) + 𝑥(𝑛 − 1) A system is said to be causal if impulse response h(n) is zero for
negative values of n
i.e., h(𝑛) = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 < 0
Non-Causal system: A system is said to be Non-causal if the response of a system at any instant of time
depends on the future input and also on the present input, past input, past output.
Example: 𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(𝑛 + 2) + 𝑥(𝑛 − 1)
𝑦(𝑛) = 𝑥(−𝑛) + 𝑥(𝑛 + 4) A system is said to be non-causal if impulse response h(𝑛) is non-zero for
negative values of n
i.e., h(𝑛) ≠ 0 for 𝑛 < 0
Stable and Unstable system
Continuous time domain: A system is said to be stable if and only if it satisfies the BIBO stability
criterion. BIBO stable condition: Every bounded input yields bounded output.
𝑖. 𝑒. , if 0 < 𝑥 (t) < ∞ 𝑡h𝑒𝑛 0 < 𝑦 (t) < ∞ should be satisfied for the system to be stable Impulse response
should be absolutely integrable
 If the BIBO stable condition is not satisfied, then the system is said to be unstable system
Discrete time domain: A system is said to be stable if and only if it satisfies the BIBO stability criterion.
BIBO stable condition:
Every bounded input yields bounded output.
Impulse response should be absolutely summable

If the BIBO stable condition is not satisfied, then the system is said to be unstable system

1.8 Examples

Draw time reversal signal of unit step signal

Solution: 𝑢 𝑛 = 1; 𝑛 ≥ 0

Check whether the following is periodic or not. If periodic, determine fundamental time period
Determine whether the signals are energy or power signal

Determine whether the signals are energy or power signal

Determine whether the following systems are linear or not

(1) ≠ (4) The given system is Non-Linear.

Determine whether the following systems are linear or not
Determine whether the following systems are static or dynamic

Determine whether the following systems are time invariant or not

Determine whether the following systems are causal or not

𝒚 (𝒕) = 𝒅𝒙(𝒕)/ 𝒅𝒕 + 𝟐𝒙(𝒕)
The given equation is differential equation and the output depends on past input. Hence the given system
is 𝐂𝐚𝐮𝐬𝐚𝐥
Determine whether the following systems are causal or not
𝒚(𝒏) = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙(𝒏)
𝑦 (0) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(0) ⇒ present input
𝑦 −1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(−1) ⇒ present input
𝑦(1) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥(1) ⇒ present input
Since output depends on present input the given system is Causal system
Determine whether the following systems are stable or not
Determine whether the following systems are stable or not
 CHAPTER 2 MATHEMATICAL OPERATION OF SIGNALS AND SYSTEM

2.1 Mathematical Operations of Signals

Sometime a given mathematical function may completely describe a signal.
Different operations are required for different purposes of arbitrary signals.
The operations on signals can be
 Time Shifting
 Time Scaling
 Time Inversion or Time Folding
Time Shifting
x(t ± t0 ) is time shifted version of the signal x(t).
x (t + t0 ) → negative shift
x (t - t0 ) → positive shift

X(t) → X(t+to) →Signal Advanced→shift to the left

Time Scaling
x(At) is time scaled version of the signal x(t). where A is always positive.
|A| > 1 → Compression of the signal
|A| < 1 → Expansion of the signal
Time Reversal Or Time Folding
Time reversal is also called time folding
In Time reversal signal is reversed with respect to time
i.e. y(t) = x(-t) is obtained for the given function
Amplitude Scaling
C x(t) is a amplitude scaled version of x(t) whose amplitude is scaled by a factor C.

Addition
Addition of two signals is nothing but addition of their corresponding amplitudes. This can be best
explained by using the following example:
-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 1 + 2 = 3
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2

Subtraction
Subtraction of two signals is nothing but subtraction of their corresponding amplitudes. This can be best
explained by the following example:
-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 0 - 2 = -2
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 1 - 2 = -1
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 - 2 = -2
 Multiplication
Here multiplication of amplitude of two or more signals at each instance of time or any other independent
variables is done which are common between the signals. Multiplication of signals is illustrated in the diagram
below, where X1 (t) and X2 (t) are two time dependent signals, on whom after performing the multiplication
operation we get

2.2 Operations of Discrete Time Functions

Scaling; Signal Compression
Time shifting
2.3 Properties of Linear convolution
Commutative property
Distributive Property
Associative Property
2.4 Computation of linear convolution
The different methods for computation of linear convolution
1.graphical method
2.using mathematical equation of convolution
3.tabulation method
4.multiplication method
1.graphical method

2.using mathematical equation of convolution

3.tabulation method
 4.multiplication method

This is another easy method to obtain convolution of two sequence.this method is similar to
multiplication of multidigit numbers.

2.5 Examples of convolution method

2.5 INTERCONNECTION OF DISCRETE TIME SYSTEM
1.Cascade or series interconnection

2.Parallel interconnection

3.Feedback interconnection

1.Cascade or series interconnection

Y1(n) = T1[x(n)]

Y2(n) = T2[Y1(n)]

Y(n) = T1T2[X1(n)]

2.PARLLEL INTERCONNECTION
 Y1(n) = T1[x(n)]

Y2(n) = T2[x(n)]

Y(n) = Y1(n) + Y2(n) =T1[x(n)]+T2[x(n)]

3.Feedback interconnection

2.6 Properties of LTI systems in terms of the impulse response

Since an LTI system is characterized completely by its impulse response, we should be able to express all
of the other four properties (causality, invertibility, memory, stability) in terms of h[n].
Causal LTI systems
Recall system is causal iff output y[n] depends only on present and past values of input. For an LTI
system with impulse response h[n]:
Stability of LTI systems
2.7 Impulse Response of LTI systems
The response of a Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) system to the unit impulse δ(t) is called "The impulse response" h(t)
h(t) = LTI-SYS { δ(t) }

The impulse response h(t) completely characterizes an LTI system y(t) = FUNCTION { x(t),h(t) }

Using the sifting property, we can write a signal x(t) as:

which is writing a general signal x(t) as a function of an impulse function. This

expresses the input x(t) as an integral (continuum sum) of shifted impulses that are
weighted by weights x(τ). Another way to put this is that you can build a CT signal out
of impulses

2.8 Impulse response of DT LTI Systems

Once the response to a unit impulse is known, the response of any discrete-time LTI system to any
arbitrary excitation can be found
Any arbitrary excitation is a sequence of amplitude-scaled and time-shifted DT impulses

Therefore the response is a sequence of amplitude-scaled and time-shifted DT impulse responses

2.9 LTI Systems: Difference Equations
An important class of LTI systems: Input & output satisfy an Nth-order Linear Constant Coefficient
Difference Equations (LCCD) equation

An LTI System can be described by a difference equation

2.10 convolution integral for CT- LTI system
2.11 LTI system response properties from impulse response
2.12 Causal signal response to DT-LTI systems
In many situations signals need to be processed in real-time, i.e., the processing must be done as the
signal comes into the system. In those situations, the system must be causal. Whenever the data can be
stored, not a real-time situation, is not necessary to use a causal system.
Fact 1 (for CT systems): A CT LTI system is causal if and only if its unit impulse response h(t) satisfies
h(t)=0 for t<0.
Fact 1 (for DT systems): A DT LTI system is causal if and only if its unit impulse response h[n] satisfies
h[n]=0 for n<0.

Now if you look at the last equality, you see that the output at time n is a linear combination of the values
of the input at all times (the x[k]'s). The coefficients for each x[k] is given by the values of h[n-k]. So, if
the output at n does not depend on x[k] for k>n, this means that the coefficient of all x[k] with k>n must
be zero. Thus h[n-k] must be zero for all k>n. Observe that saying "k>n" is equivalent to saying "k-n<0".
So, if we think of k-n as a new variable u, what we are really saying is that h[u ] must be zero whenever
u<0. But of course, u is just a place holder. We can replace it by n, and our statement becomes h[n]=0 for
all n<0.
Similarly, for a CT LTI system we have

Again, if you look at the last equality, you see that the output at time t is a combination of the values of
the input at all times (i.e. x(t') for t' between minus infinity and infinity). So all the values of x(t') (for all
the different times t') influences the output, unless their coefficient h(t-t') happens to be zero. So if the
system is to be causal, the coefficients h(t-t') must be zero whenever t'>t. This way, the future values of
the input signal are not influencing the integral. But when we say h(t-t') must be zero whenever t'>t, this
is the same as saying h(u) must be zero whenever u<0. Replacing the variable u by the more commonly
used variable t, we get that h(t) must be zero whenever t<0.
You may notice that the arguments above are phrased in such a way to prove that "if a system is causal,
then the unit impulse response satisfies "h(t)=0 for t<0". Actually, the converse is also true, and it would
not be difficult to change the language of the above arguments slightly to prove the "if and only if". You
may try to do this at home if you feel like it. It is always good to practice your logic!
So from now on, you have another way to check for the causality of a system, provided that you know
that the system is LTI. So in an exam question, I could state that a system is LTI and give you its unit
impulse response. I could then ask you whether or not the system is causal. To answer the question, you
should simply check whether "h(t)=0 for t<0" or "h[n]=0 for n<0", depending on whether it is a CT
system or a DT system.
 3.Fourier, Laplace and z-transforms

3.1 Fourier serie

To represent any periodic signal x(t), Fourier developed an expression called Fourier series. This is in
terms of an infinite sum of sines and cosines or exponentials.
Fourier series uses orthoganality condition. Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier,a French mathematician and a
physicist; was born in Auxerre, France. He initialized Fourier series, Fourier transforms and their
applications to problems of heat transfer and vibrations. The Fourier series, Fourier transforms and
Fourier's Law are named in his honour.
3.2 Fourier Series Representation of Continuous Time Periodic Signals
A signal is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition x (t) = x (t + T) or x (n) = x (n + N).
Where T = fundamental time period,
ω0= fundamental frequency = 2π/T
There are two basic periodic signals:
x(t)=cosω0t(sinusoidal) &
x(t)=ejω0t(complex exponential)
These two signals are periodic with period T=2π/ω0 .
A set of harmonically related complex exponentials can be represented as {ϕk(t)}

All these signals are periodic with period T

According to orthogonal signal space approximation of a function x (t) with n, mutually orthogonal
functions is given by

Where ak = Fourier coefficient = coefficient of approximation.

This signal x(t) is also periodic with period T.
Equation 2 represents Fourier series representation of periodic signal x(t).
The term k = 0 is constant.
The term k=±1 having fundamental frequency ω0 , is called as 1st harmonics.
The term k=±2 having fundamental frequency 2ω0 , is called as 2nd harmonics, and so on...
The term k=±n having fundamental frequency nω0, is called as nth harmonics.
3.3 Properties of Fourier series
3.4 Parseval's Theorem

3.5 Relation between Laplace and Fourier transforms

3.6 Fourier Transform
The main drawback of Fourier series is, it is only applicable to periodic signals. There are some naturally
produced signals such as nonperiodic or aperiodic, which we cannot represent using Fourier series. To
overcome this shortcoming, Fourier developed a mathematical model to transform signals between time
or spatial domain to frequency domain & vice versa, which is called 'Fourier transform'. Fourier
transform has many applications in physics and engineering such as analysis of LTI systems, RADAR,
astronomy, signal processing etc.
Deriving Fourier transform from Fourier series Consider a periodic signal f with period T. The complex
Fourier series representation of f is given as
Fourier Transform of Basic Functions
Let us go through Fourier Transform of basic functions:
Properties of Fourier Transform:
Here are the properties of Fourier Transform:
Differentiation and Integration Properties
3.7 Review of the Laplace Transform for continuous time signals and systems,
The function H(s) is referred to as the Laplace transform of h(t). For a general continuous-time signal
x(t), the Laplace transform X(s) is defined as

The variable s is generally complex-valued and is expressed as

Inverse Laplace Transform:

Initial Value Theorem

Statement: If x(t) and its 1st derivative is Laplace transformable, then the initial value of x(t) is given by

Final Value Theorem

Statement: If x(t) and its 1st derivative is Laplace transformable, then the final value of x(t) is given by

Properties of Laplace transform:

The properties of Laplace transform are:
Linearity Property
Time Shifting Property

Frequency Shifting Property

Time Reversal Property

Time Scaling Property

Differentiation and Integration Properties

Multiplication and Convolution Properties

Region of convergence.
The range variation of σ for which the Laplace transform converges is called region of convergence
Properties of ROC of Laplace Transform
 ROC contains strip lines parallel to jω axis in s-plane.
 If x(t) is absolutely integral and it is of finite duration, then ROC is entire s-plane.
 If x(t) is a right sided sequence then ROC : Re{s} > σo.
 If x(t) is a left sided sequence then ROC : Re{s} < σo.
 If x(t) is a two sided sequence then ROC is the combination of two regions.
3.8 Z-Transform
Z-Transform Properties:
Z-Transform has following properties:
Linearity Property:
Time Shifting Property

Multiplication by Exponential Sequence Property

Time Reversal Property

Differentiation in Z-Domain OR Multiplication by n Property

Convolution Property
Correlation Property

Initial Value and Final Value Theorems

Initial value and final value theorems of z-transform are defined for causal signal.
Initial Value Theorem
For a causal signal x(n), the initial value theorem states that

Final Value Theorem

For a causal signal x(n), the final value theorem states that

Region of Convergence (ROC) of Z-Transform

The range of variation of z for which z-transform converges is called region of convergence of
ztransform. Properties of ROC of Z-Transforms
 ROC of z-transform is indicated with circle in z-plane.
 ROC does not contain any poles.
 If x(n) is a finite duration causal sequence or right sided sequence, then the ROC is entire z-plane
except at z = 0.
 If x(n) is a finite duration anti-causal sequence or left sided sequence, then the ROC is entire z-
plane except at z = ∞.
 If x(n) is a infinite duration causal sequence, ROC is exterior of the circle with radius a. i.e. |z| >
 a.
 If x(n) is a infinite duration anti-causal sequence, ROC is interior of the circle with radius a. i.e. |z|
< a.
 If x(n) is a finite duration two sided sequence, then the ROC is entire z-plane except at z = 0 & z
= ∞.

3.9 Zeros and Poles of the system

3.10 Z-transform of standard sequence
5.Z-transform of unit ramp
PUT A= Z-1
3.11 Properties of Z-transform
3.12 Inverese Z-transform
3.13 System function from Z-transform and pole-zero plot
Pole –zero plot
CHAPTER 4 SAMPLING & RECONSTRUCTION
 CHAPTER 4 SAMPLING & RECONSTRUCTION

4.1 Sampling Theorem.

Statement: A continuous time signal can be represented in its samples and can be recovered back when
sampling frequency fs is greater than or equal to the twice the highest frequency component of message signal.
i. e.

fs≥2fm.fs≥2fm.

Proof: Consider a continuous time signal x(t). The spectrum of x(t) is a band limited to fm Hz i.e.

The spectrum of x(t) is zero for |ω|>ωm.

Sampling of input signal x(t) can be obtained by multiplying x(t) with an impulse train δ(t) of period Ts.

The output of multiplier is a discrete signal called sampled signal which is represented with y(t)

in the following diagrams:

Here, you can observe that the sampled signal takes the period of impulse.

The process of sampling can be explained by the following mathematical expression:

Sampled signaly(t)=x(t).δ(t)......(1)Sampled signaly(t)=x(t).δ(t)......(1)

The trigonometric Fourier series representation of δδ(t) is given by
δ(t)=a0+Σ∞n=1(ancosnωst+bnsinnωst)......(2)δ(t)=a0+Σn=1∞(ancos⁡⁡nωst+bnsin⁡⁡nωst)......(2)
Where a0=1Ts∫T2−T2δ(t)dt=1Tsδ(0)=1Tsa0=1Ts∫−T2T2δ(t)dt=1Tsδ(0)=1Ts
an=2Ts∫T2−T2δ(t)cosnωsdt=2T2δ(0)cosnωs0=2Tan=2Ts∫−T2T2δ(t)cos⁡nωsdt=2T2δ(0)cos⁡nωs0=2T
bn=2Ts∫T2−T2δ(t)sinnωstdt=2Tsδ(0)sinnωs0=0bn=2Ts∫−T2T2δ(t)sin⁡⁡nωstdt=2Tsδ(0)sin⁡⁡nωs0=0

Substitute above values in equation 2.

∴δ(t)=1Ts+Σ∞n=1(2Tscosnωst+0)∴δ(t)=1Ts+Σn=1∞(2Tscos⁡⁡nωst+0)

Substitute δ(t) in equation 1.

→y(t)=x(t).δ(t)→y(t)=x(t).δ(t)
=x(t)[1Ts+Σ∞n=1(2Tscosnωst)]=x(t)[1Ts+Σn=1∞(2Tscos⁡nωst)]
=1Ts[x(t)+2Σ∞n=1(cosnωst)x(t)]=1Ts[x(t)+2Σn=1∞(cos⁡nωst)x(t)]
y(t)=1Ts[x(t)+2cosωst.x(t)+2cos2ωst.x(t)+2cos3ωst.x(t)......]y(t)=1Ts[x(t)+2cos⁡ωst.x(t)+2cos⁡2ωst.x(t)+2cos⁡3ωst.x(t)......]

Take Fourier transform on both sides.

Y(ω)=1Ts[X(ω)+X(ω−ωs)+X(ω+ωs)+X(ω−2ωs)+X(ω+2ωs)+...]Y(ω)=1Ts[X(ω)+X(ω−ωs)+X(ω+ωs)+X(ω−2ωs)+X(ω+2ωs)+...]
∴Y(ω)=1TsΣ∞n=−∞X(ω−nωs)wheren=0,±1,±2,...∴Y(ω)=1TsΣn=−∞∞X(ω−nωs)wheren=0,±1,±2,...

To reconstruct x(t), you must recover input signal spectrum X(ω) from sampled signal spectrum Y(ω),

which is possible when there is no overlapping between the cycles of Y(ω).

Possibility of sampled frequency spectrum with different conditions is given by the following diagrams:
4.2 Concept of Reconstruction with ideal interpolator, zero-order hold, and first-order hold.

In time domain, the reconstruction of the continuous signal from its sampled

Version can be considered as an interpolation process of filling the gaps

between neighbouring samples.

The interpolation can be considered as convolution of with a certain function :

In frequency domain, the interpolation can be considered as a filtering process:

with the general effect of reserving the central portion of the periodic spectrum
while suppressing all its replica at higher frequencies.

 Zero-order hold

A continuous signal can be recovered by

Which is a series of square pulses with their heights modulated by .

The interpolation corresponds a low-pass filtering in frequency domain by

 First-order hold

A continuous signal can be recovered by

which is the linear interpolation of the sample train

(connecting every two consecutive samples by a straight line).

This interpolation corresponds a low-pass filtering in frequency domain by

 Ideal reconstruction

The reconstructed signals and using 0th or 1st order hold interpolation are certainly

different from the original signal , for the reason that the low-pass filter is non-ideal. To find the

interpolation function for a perfect reconstruction of the original signal , consider an ideal low-pass
filter in frequency domain:
with time domain impulse response

The reconstruction of the continuous signal can now be realized by applying this ideal low-pass

filter to the sampled signal :

If the cutoff frequency is higher than but lower than , then the central portion

of can be extracted and scaled by factor , while all other replicas beyond the cutoff frequency
are suppressed, i.e., the original signal is perfectly reconstructed:

In time domain, this perfect reconstruction is

4.3 Concept of Aliasing and its effects in Sampling.

• In this section we begin a discussion of the very important signal processing topic known as aliasing

• Alias as found in the Oxford American dictionary: noun

 A false or assumed identity: a spy operating under an alias.

 Computing: an alternative name or label that refers to a file, command, address, or other item, and can be used to
locate or access it.
 Telecommunications: each of a set of signal frequencies that, when sampled at a given uniform rate, would give
the same set of sampled values, and thus might be incorrectly substituted for one another when reconstructing the
original signal.
4.4 Difference between continuous and discrete time systems in signals
Continuous-time signals are characterised by independent variables that are continuous and define a continuous
set of values. Usually the variable indicates the continuous time signals, and the variable n indicates the
discrete-time system. Also the independent variable is enclosed at parentheses for continuous-time signals and to
the brackets for discrete-time systems. The feature of the discrete-time signals is that they are sampling
continuous-time signals.

The signals we are describing are obviously related to the features of the system as power and energy. The total
energy of the continuous-time signal over the interval is .

Here is the magnitude of the function .

Here the brackets are describing the time-continuous interval . The parentheses can be used for describing the
time-continuous interval . The continuous-time power can be obtained by deriving the energy by the time
interval .

The total energy of the discrete-time signal over the interval is the sum .

Where the average power over the indicated interval can be obtained with energy derived by the .

Many systems exist over the infinite interval of the independent variable. For these systems

For continuous-time, and

Some integrals and sums may not converge. These systems are characterised by the infinite energy . For
converging integrals and sums, signals have a finite energy .

The average power for discrete-time and continuous-time signals for an infinite period of time are:

The signals with a finite total energy are characterised with zero average power . The signals with infinite total
energy are characterised by .

We are considering here the most simple and frequent variable transformations that can be combined, resulting
in complex transformations.

1. Time shift is the transformation when two signals and are the same but are displaced relatively to each
other. The same for time-continuous signals and .

2. Time reversal is when the signal is obtained from by reflecting the signal relatively . For continuous-
time signals is a reflection over .

3. Transformation , is where and are given numbers. Here the transformation depends on the value and
sign of numbers, so if and the signal is extended, if and the signal is compressed, if , the signal is
reversed and can be extended or compressed, depending on the magnitude and sign of the signal is
shifted right or left. For discrete-time variables the transformations are the same .
Figure 1 depicts different kinds of signal transformations for continuous-time and discrete-time variables.
 Figure 1. a, b – the time shift transformation for continuous-time and discrete-time signals;

c, d – reverse transformation for continuous-time and discrete-time signals;

e, f – scale transformation for continuous-time and discrete-time signals.

4.5 Applications of Signals and Systems.

Ans. Control Applications:-

• Industrial control and automation (Control the velocity or position of an object)

 • Examples: Controlling the position of a valve or shaft of a motor

• Important Tools:

• Time-domain solution of differential equations

• Transfer function (Laplace Transform)

• Stability

Communication Applications:-

• Transmission of information (signal) over a channel

• The channel may be free space, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable

• A key component of transmission: Modulation (Analog and Digital Communication)

Modulation:-

• Analog Modulation: Transmitting audio signals.

X(t) Ax(t)c os(wt)

X

Loc al Osc illator

• Advantage: Higher frequency range good propagation

• Frequency Modulation (FM), modulate the angle of the carrier.

 • Advantage: More robust to interference

Signal Processing Applications:-

• Signal processing=Application of algorithms to modify signals in a way to make them more useful.

• Goals:

– Efficient and reliable transmission, storage and display of information

– Information extraction and enhancement

• Examples:

– Speech and audio processing

– Multimedia processing (image and video)

– Underwater acoustic

– Biological signal analysis

 CHAPTER 5 APPLICATIONS BASED ON IOT
5.1 Concept of Internet of Things.
The internet of things, or IoT, is a system of interrelated computing devices, mechanical and digital machines,
objects, animals or people that are provided with unique identifiers (UIDs) and the ability to transfer data over a
network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction. A thing in the internet of things
can be a person with a heart monitor implant, a farm animal with a biochip transponder, an automobile that has
built-in sensors to alert the driver when tire pressure is low or any other natural or man-made object that can be
assigned an Internet Protocol (IP) address and is able to transfer data over a network.

The internet of things, or IoT, is a system of interrelated computing devices, mechanical and digital machines,
objects, animals or people that are provided with unique identifiers (UIDs) and the ability to transfer data over a
network without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction.

A thing in the internet of things can be a person with a heart monitor implant, a farm animal with a biochip
transponder, an automobile that has built-in sensors to alert the driver when tire pressure is low or any other
natural or man-made object that can be assigned an Internet Protocol (IP) address and is able to transfer data
over a network.

How IoT works

An IoT ecosystem consists of web-enabled smart devices that use embedded systems, such as processors,
sensors and communication hardware, to collect, send and act on data they acquire from their environments. IoT
devices share the sensor data they collect by connecting to an IoT gateway or other edge device where data is
either sent to the cloud to be analyzed or analyzed locally. Sometimes, these devices communicate with other
related devices and act on the information they get from one another. The devices do most of the work without
human intervention, although people can interact with the devices -- for instance, to set them up, give them
instructions or access the data.

The connectivity, networking and communication protocols used with these web-enabled devices largely depend
on the specific IoT applications deployed. IoT can also make use of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine
learning to aid in making data collecting processes easier and more dynamic.

IoT benefits to organizations

The internet of things offers several benefits to organizations. Some benefits are industry-specific, and some are
applicable across multiple industries. Some of the common benefits of IoT enable businesses to:

 monitor their overall business processes;

 improve the customer experience (CX);

 save time and money;

 enhance employee productivity;

 integrate and adapt business models;

 make better business decisions; and

 Generate more revenue.

IoT encourages companies to rethink the ways they approach their businesses and gives them the tools to
improve their business strategies.

Generally, IoT is most abundant in manufacturing, transportation and utility organizations, making use of
sensors and other IoT devices; however, it has also found use cases for organizations within the agriculture,
infrastructure and home automation industries, leading some organizations toward digital transformation.

IoT can benefit farmers in agriculture by making their job easier. Sensors can collect data on rainfall, humidity,
temperature and soil content, as well as other factors, that would help automate farming techniques.

The ability to monitor operations surrounding infrastructure is also a factor that IoT can help with. Sensors, for
example, could be used to monitor events or changes within structural buildings, bridges and other
infrastructure. This brings benefits with it, such as cost saving, saved time, quality-of-life workflow changes and
paperless workflow.

A home automation business can utilize IoT to monitor and manipulate mechanical and electrical systems in a
building. On a broader scale, smart cities can help citizens reduce waste and energy consumption.
 IoT touches every industry, including businesses within healthcare, finance, retail and manufacturing.

5.2
Role of Sensors and Actuators in IoT.

The Internet of Things is rarely discussed without the conversation steering to data and the new Data Economy.
The intelligence and value from an IoT system is based on what can be learned from the data. Sensors are the
source of IoT data.

Driven by new innovations in materials and nanotechnology, sensor technology is developing at a never before
seen pace, with a result of increased accuracy, decreased size and cost, and the ability to measure or detect things
that weren’t previously possible. In fact, sensing technology is developing so rapidly and becoming so advanced
that we will see a trillion new sensors deployed annually within a few years.

Sensors and Actuators

A better term for a sensor is a transducer. A transducer is any physical device that converts one form of energy
into another. So, in the case of a sensor, the transducer converts some physical phenomenon into an electrical
impulse that can then be interpreted to determine a reading. A microphone is a sensor that takes
vibrational energy (sound waves), and converts it to electrical energy in a useful way for other components in the
system to correlate back to the original sound.

Another type of transducer that you will encounter in many IoT systems is an actuator. In simple terms, an
actuator operates in the reverse direction of a sensor. It takes an electrical input and turns it into physical action.
For instance, an electric motor, a hydraulic system, and a pneumatic system are all different types of actuators.

In a typical IoT system, a sensor may collect information and route to a control center where a decision is made
and a corresponding command is sent back to an actuator in response to that sensed input. Later, we will discuss
where the control center resides in the greater IoT system.

There are many different types of sensors in an IoT system. Flow sensors, temperature sensors, voltage sensors,
humidity sensors, and the list goes on. In addition, there are multiple ways to measure the same thing. For
instance, airflow might be measured by using a small propeller like the one you would see on a weather station.
Alternatively, as in a vehicle measuring the air through the engine, airflow is measured by heating a small
element and measuring the rate at which the element is cooling.

Different applications call for different ways of measuring the same thing.

The Importance of Accurate Sensors

Imagine that you are a bar owner and you want to measure the amount of beer coming out of one of your taps.
One way you might do this is to install a sensor in line with the line that runs from the keg of beer to the tap.
This sensor would most likely have a small impeller inside of it. When the beer ran through the sensor, it would
cause the impeller to spin, just like the propeller on a weather station.

When the impeller spins, it will send a stream of electrical impulses to a computer. The computer will interpret
the impulses to determine how much beer is flowing through. Sounds simple, right?

This is where sensors get interesting. If you look back at our description, you’ll see that we never directly
measured the amount of beer flowing through the sensor; we interpreted it from a stream of electrical impulses.
That means that we must first figure out how to interpret it. Calibration.

To calibrate the sensor, we’d have to take a container with a known carrying capacity, say, a pint glass. Then
we’d have to fill that container under a variety of conditions to determine what the electrical pulse signal looked
 like.

For instance, the first pour off a new keg might tend to have more foam, which would read differently than a
pour from the middle of the keg that was all beer. It’s only through repeated trials and a lot of data that we gain
confidence that we can interpret the data and determine how much beer was poured.

Once the correlation is well known, a protocol can be developed to always assure the sensor is reading correctly.
This is called calibration. Reputable manufacturers will deliver fully calibrated devices and provide instruction
on how to re-calibrate to verify sensor accuracy.

The accuracy of sensed data is paramount, since you will make mission-critical decisions based on later analysis
of the data, which will hold little value if the data is wrong.

5.3 Interfacing of Arduino with Sensors.

 Interfacing of LM35 with Arduino

In LM35 interfacing with Arduino, temperature information will be send to the PC using the code/circuit.

Generally, LM35 is a three pin temperature sensor which is used to measure temperature variations as

An analog output. The operating range of the sensor is about -55 to 150 C.

Connect the output pin of the sensor, to the analog pin (A1) of the MEP_ROBO development board...
 Figure : LM35

Step1: Procure Materials Required

 LM35
 MEP_ROBO Board with ATMEGA 328 IC.
 USB Cable.
 Computer with Arduino software.
 Connecting wires(3)

Figure: Components Diagram

Step2: Write the program in Arduino UNO IDE.

Step3: Connecting LM35 with the Board
 Figure : Connection Diagram

 Place the temperature sensor to any of the analog pins A0, A1, A2, and A3.
 Here we are using A0.
 Connect Vcc of the LM35 with the Vcc of the board.
 Connect GND of the sensor with the GND of the board.
 Connect output of sensor with A0 of the board.

Step4: Connect USB cable to the board.

Step5: Download program to the board.

Step6: Output

The output is seen through the serial monitor. In Arduino IDE, take Tools----Serial Monitor. Set the baud rate to
9600.

Figure: Output