Materials Science and Engineering (MS-101)

Course Coordinator:

Dr. Sumeet K Sharma

Department of Materials Science and Engineering
NIT Hamirpur (H.P)
sumeetsharma@nith.ac.in 1
Course Objectives:

• To impart knowledge about the structure of materials

• To introduce fundamental concepts relevant to phase diagrams, phase transformations and heat treatment of metals and
alloys
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To enable the students to understand properties of engineering materials Course Credits: 03

Course Hours/Week: 3L
Course Outcomes
Upon successful completion of the course, you will be able to

• Classify various engineering materials and explain their structures and imperfections

• Draw some typical phase diagrams and discuss their distinctive features

• Explain Isothermal transformation and continuous cooling diagrams of steels

• Describe various heat treatment processes

• Briefly discuss properties of engineering materials and correlate them to their internal structures
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Schedule of Classes (Section F for EC branch having Roll No. 01 to 95)

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Course Content:

 Introduction to Materials
 Structures and Imperfections
 Phase Diagrams
 Phase Transformations and Heat Treatment
 Properties of Materials
• Mechanical properties
• Electronic properties
• Magnetic properties
• Thermal properties
• Optical properties

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 International Space Station

• Multinational Collaborative Project

• Sixteen countries led by U.S

• Speed 27000 km/h

• Needed proper design and selection of materials for conditions

quite different from earth

• Light weight

• Outer shell should resist impact from meteoroids and space debris

• Internal air pressure constantly stressing the modules

• Temperature conditions

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Courtesy: NASA
 Materials: Substances of which something is composed of
 Advancement of civilization has historically depended on the materials to work with

 Prehistoric humans dependent on natural materials viz. stone, wood, bones and fur

 Over time moved on to different materials

Civilizations have been named based on the level of their materials development
Stone age
Bronze age
Iron age
Plastic age
Silicon age

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• We humans are water-containing and air-breathing

• We are dependent on earth’s core for

Gravitational attraction.

• We will continue to be dependent on iron for our

Existence and sun for energy

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 Production and processing of materials = Large part of our economy

 Materials design and usage are constantly changing

 Difficult to produce long term advances in materials design

 Search of new materials and their design is continuous e.g.

• Mech. Engineers search for higher temp. materials so that jet engines can work efficiently

• Elect. Engineers search new materials such that electronic devices can operate faster and at higher temperatures

• Aerospace Engineers search for materials with higher strength to weight ratios for aerospace vehicles

• Chemical and Materials Engineers look for more corrosion resistant materials

(These are few examples which are not limited to these only)

Engineers should have basic and applied knowledge of materials for making work more effective
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Materials Science and Engineering forms bridge between Basic Sciences, Applied Sciences and Engineering
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 Need of Studying Materials Science and Engineering

 Many an applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical, civil, chemical, or electrical, will at one time or another be
exposed to a design problem involving materials.

e.g. a transmission gear, the superstructure for a building, an oil refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip.

 Problem is one of selecting the right material from the thousands that are available. The final decision is normally based on
several criteria few of which are listed below.

• In-service conditions

• Deterioration of material properties that may occur during service operation

• Economics

The more familiar an engineer or scientist is with the various characteristics and structure–property relationships, as well as
processing techniques of materials, the more proficient and confident he or she will be in making judicious materials
choices based on these criteria.

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 Automobile and Materials
 By 1890 - Copper, Bronze, Iron, Steel , Aluminum and Rubber in addition to Wood was available

 Paradigm shift in the road transport from horse carriages to motorized vehicles

Development and
advancement in materials

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Image Courtesy: Google Images
 Applications of Materials
 Optical transmittance properties
 three specimens are different in terms of crystal boundaries and pores

 Single crystal aluminum oxide to the material with small single crystals as well as boundaries/pores

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Image Courtesy: Mat. Sci. by W.D Callister
Explanation:

• All of these specimens are of the same material, aluminum oxide, but the leftmost one is what we call
a single crystal—that is, has a high degree of perfection—which gives rise to its transparency.

• The center one is composed of numerous and very small single crystals that are all connected; the boundaries
between these small crystals scatter a portion of the light reflected from the printed page, which makes this
material optically translucent.

• Finally, the specimen on the right is composed not only of many small, interconnected crystals, but also of a
large number of very small pores or void spaces. These pores also effectively scatter the reflected light and
render this material opaque.

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 Applications Contd.
 Defense
 Inter continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM)

 5500 – 10000 KM

Heat up to 1500 °C

Material - Reinforced carbon-carbon composite

Image Courtesy: Google Images 15

 Applications Contd.
On only rare occasions does a material possess the maximum or ideal combination of properties.
Thus, it may be necessary to trade one characteristic for another.

e.g. Strength and Ductility

Different materials requirement for different applications

• Dynamic loading: Impact loading, Shock loading

• Gradual Loading
• Cyclic loading
• Surface wear

COST
 Applications Contd.
 Space
 Geosynchronous Satellite Lunch Vehicle Mark-III (GSLV MK-III)

Cryogenic engine to store hydrogen and oxygen

Material – Titanium alloys

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Image Courtesy: Google Images
 Applications Contd.
 Apple watch

 Outer casing to overcome scratches, higher toughness, ergonomically good and light weight

Material – Al-alloys, gold- ceramics metal matrix composites and stainless steel

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Image Courtesy: Google Images
 Automobile and Materials
 Development of new materials and technologies based on the requirement in automobile

 Without compromising the quality, environmental friendly technology development

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Image Courtesy: Google Images
 Connect technology to Material design
 Structure in different scale

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Image Courtesy: Google Images
Structure Properties Relationships

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 Correlations in Materials Science and Engineering

Materials Engineering

Materials processing is defined as the series of steps or

“unit operations” used in the manufacture of raw-
materials into finished goods. The operations involve a
succession of industrial processes with various
mechanical or chemical procedures, through which
materials are usually produced in large quantities or
batches.

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Image Courtesy: Google Images
 Overview of Processing of Materials
 Extracting material from its Raw Form

 Forming and Shaping Processes:

Casting: Processing materials in liquid form (Term casting is used for metals, glass and ceramics)

Molding: This term is used for plastic and other non-metallic materials

 Materials in their solid state are formed into desired shapes by the application of a force or pressure.
The material to be processed can be in a relatively hard and stable condition and in such forms as bar,
sheet, pellet, or powder, or it can be in a soft, plastic, or puttylike form.

 After the material is formed, it is usually further altered.

In materials processing, a “removal” process is one that eliminates portions of a piece or body of material to achieve a
desired shape. Although removal processes are applied to most types of materials, they are most widely used on metallic
materials. Material can be removed from a work piece by either mechanical or non-mechanical means.

There are a number of metal-cutting processes. In almost all of them, machining involves the forcing of a cutting
tool against the material to be shaped. The tool, which is harder than the material to be cut, removes the unwanted
material in the form of chips. 23
 The properties of materials can be further altered by hot or cold treatments or by mechanical operations.
The property modification is usually brought about by a change in the microscopic structure of the material.

 Both heat-treating, involving temperatures above room temperature, and cold-treating, involving
temperatures below room temperature, are included in this category.

• Thermal treatment is a process in which the temperature of the material is raised or lowered to alter the
properties of the original material.
• Most thermal-treating processes are based on time-temperature cycles that include three steps: heating,
holding at temperature, and cooling.
• Although some thermal treatments are applicable to most families of materials, they are most widely used
on metals.

 Finally, “finishing” processes may be employed to modify the surfaces of materials in order to protect the
material against deterioration by corrosion, oxidation, mechanical wear, or deformation; to provide special
surface characteristics such as reflectivity, electrical conductivity or insulation, or bearing properties; or to
give the material special decorative effects.

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 Performance

Different types of loadings

Mechanical
Electrical
Thermal

Environmental conditions
under operations

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Image Courtesy: Google Images
 Structure
 In brief, the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components.

 Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their nuclei.

 On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to one
another.

 The next larger structural realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated
together, is termed microscopic, meaning that which is subject to direct observation using some type of
microscope.

 Finally, structural elements that may be viewed with the naked eye are termed macroscopic.

Properties
 The notion of property deserves elaboration. While in service use, all materials are exposed to external
stimuli that evoke some type of response. For example, a specimen subjected to forces will experience
deformation, or a polished metal surface will reflect light.

 A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific imposed
stimulus.
Generally, definitions of properties are made independent of material shape and size. 26
 Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories: mechanical,
electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative. For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus
capable of provoking different responses.

• Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples include elastic modulus
(stiffness), strength, and toughness.

• For electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an electric
field. The thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms, of heat capacity and thermal conductivity.

• Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a magnetic field.

• For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation; index of refraction and reflectivity are
representative optical properties.

• Finally, deteriorative characteristics relate to the chemical reactivity of materials.

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 Processing and Performance

 In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are involved in the science and
engineering of materials—namely, processing and performance.

 With regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure of a material will depend on how
it is processed. Furthermore, a material’s performance will be a function of its properties.

Roll Old grain

structure New crystal Material
Direction of work flow Performance
Elongated
Work fine grains

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Types of Atomic Bonds

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 Bonding in Crystals –

• Ionic bond,
• Covalent bond,
• Metallic bond,
• Secondary Atomic and Molecular bonds

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 Importance of atomic structure and bonding
 Atomic structure determines types of bonding

Bonding decides properties of materials

For examples
 In graphite (carbon)
 Strong covalent bond in the plane (making a layer)

 Weak Vander Waals bonds between the layers

 Diamond (Hardest material)

 Carbon atom has covalent bond with four other atoms

 Metals have weaker metallic bonds

 Ceramics have stronger covalent or ionic bonds

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 Atomic structure
 An Atom consist of a nucleus (proton + neutron) and electrons orbiting around it
 Proton – positively charged particle

 Neutron - neutral particle

 Electron - negatively charged particle

 Atomic number = number of protons

An atom is electrically neutral, No. of electron = No. of protons

 Charge of an electron = -1.6 E-19 Coulombs

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 Atomic mass
 Atomic mass is mass of protons + mass of neutrons (mass of electron is not considered)

 Atomic mass unit (amu) = 1/12th of the atomic mass of the carbon 12

1 amu/atom = 1g/mol

1 mol of a substance = 6.023*E+23 atoms

For example atomic weight of Fe is 55.85 gm/mol

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 Atomic model
 Atomic model – 1. Bohr model 2. Wave-mechanical model

Bohr model
 Electrons orbit around nucleus is discrete orbitals/shells (K, L, M) having specific energy levels

 Position of electrons in the orbits is well defined

 An electron can change orbit by emitting or absorbing a quanta of energy

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 Atomic model
 Limitations of Bohr’s model
 Could not explain the spectra of atoms containing more than one
electron

 Violates Heisenberg uncertainty principle – since Bohr’s model predict

both position and momentum at the same time

 Wave – Mechanical model

 Limitations of Bohr model was resolved by this model and electrons are
considered to behave both wave-like and particle-like

 Position of an electron is described by a probability distribution

Probability is maximum
at Bohr’s radius
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 Atomic interaction
 Attraction force due to electrostatic attraction between
electrons and nucleus

 Repulsive force when separation is less than equilibrium

 repulsion between nuclei (and electron ) of interacting atoms

At equilibrium separation net force is zero and potential

energy is minimum

Higher bond energy, Eo

 Higher melting point

 Higher elastic modulus

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Primary Atomic bonds

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Secondary Atomic and Molecular bonds

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 Ionic bonds
 Between electropositive (metallic) and electronegative (nonmetallic atoms)

 Metallic atom give valence electron to the nonmetallic atom

Na atom (unstable) Cl atom (unstable)

Electrons = 2, 8, 1 Electrons = 2, 8, 7

Na+ ion (stable) Cl- atom (stable)

Electrons = 2, 8 Electrons = 2, 8, 8 Coulombic attraction –
between two oppositely
charged ions

E.g CaF2, CsCl

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 Covalent bonds
 Atoms share their valence electrons to get a stable
configuration

Formed between atoms with small differences in

electronegativity and which are closer in periodic table

Diamond, silicon, germanium also have covalent bonds

C atom
Electron – 2, 4
Sharing of electron
between one C atom and
Methane, CH4
four H atoms
H atom
Electron – 1
E.g SiC

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 Metallic bonds
 Atoms (ions) have fixed position in the crystal

Valence electrons free to move as free to move as ‘free

electron’ forming an electron cloud

Atoms are so close that outer valence electrons are attracted

to nuclei of nearest neighbours

 The metallic bond arises out of the columbic attraction

between these two oppositely charged species – the electron
cloud and the ion cores (nucleus)

Valence electrons weakly bonded to +ve cores and can readily

move in metal crystal

Due to free electrons – very high conductivity

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 Secondary bonding

Secondary bonds are relatively weak in comparison to

Primary bonds

 Driving force is the attraction b/w electric dipoles

between atoms or molecules weaker in comparison to
primary bonds, typically 10 KJ/mol

Sec. bonds b/w atoms or molecules involving electric

dipoles :

• Fluctuating dipoles
Van der Waals bonds (forces)
• Permanent dipoles

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Fluctuating Dipoles Permanent Dipoles

Permanent dipole of water molecule

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Image Courtesy: Fundamental of Mat Sci. by William Smith
 Other ways of defining Secondary bonding
Also known as Van der Waals bonding

 Weaker in comparison to primary bonds, typically 10

KJ/mol

Arise due to atoms or molecules dipoles which form due to

separation of position and negative species of an atom or
molecule

 The bonding result from coulombic attraction between

position dipole (or negative) of one atom to the negative
(or positive) of adjacent atom

In graphite bonding between layers in van der Waals

Graphite
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 Secondary bonding
Also known as Hydrogen bonding

 Found in some molecules that have hydrogen as one of the

constituent

 Electrostatic interaction between hydrogen and another

atom of high electronegatively

 Water molecules is a good example of the bonding

between hydrogen of one molecule with oxygen of another
molecule

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References/ Sources:

1. Mat. Sci. and Engg. an Introduction by W.D Callister

2. Foundations of Mat. Sci. and Engg. William F Smith
3. Google Images

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