TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

Importance of Transportation in Nations Economic development

1. Roads are essential for the economic development of a country. For

speedy transportation of commodities a good network of roads is essential.
2. Road mileage has nowadays become a symbol of prosperity and
advancement of a country.
3. During emergencies such as accidents, the injured person can be rushed
immediately to a hospital through a good system of roads. In such cases only
a sufferer can understand the value of good system of roads.
4. A good network of roads enables villagers to transport their commodities
to the market speedily and easily.
5. A good system of roads helps in the growth of trade and other economic
activities all over the country.
6. During floods and droughts, the basic commodities can be efficiently
rushed from the other parts of the country through a good system of roads.
7. A good system of roads serves as a feeder line for other modes of
transport and thus helps indirectly in their development.
8. For the efficient functioning of the country’s defence force, a good system
of roads plays a vital role.
9. For maintaining law and order within the country, a good system of road
is an essential feature.
10. An efficient system of roads helps in carrying out exploration works at
the remotest places, which are otherwise difficult to reach.
11. Educational and cultural contacts within the people of different
communities and different places are better developed. Due to better
understanding, the chances of misunderstandings are very much reduced.
This aspect has important implication in reducing sectionalism within the
country and also outside the country

Classification Based on Materials of Construction

(a) Natural Earth Road This road is the cheapest type of road and is used at
places where traffic is rather rare. The pavement structure of this type of
road is made totally from the soil available at site. The performance of these
roads mainly depends upon the effective maintenance and drainage.

(b) Gravel Road Gravel roads are also considered as unmetalled roads. They
are actually intermediate between earthen and metalled roads. The carriage
way of these roads is made by compacting a mixture of gravel and earth. The
mixture usually consists of 26 per cent, 13 per cent clay and 61 per cent
gravel. Gravel roads are considered superior to earth roads

(c) Kankar Roads Kankar is nothing but an impure form of limestone. It is a

mixture of calcium carbonate and siliceous soils. Hard variety of the kankar
may be as strong as stones, but soft variety may be very weak. Roads having
pavement layer of kankar are termed as kankar roads. Traffic carrying
capacity of this roads is dependent on the type

(d) Moorum Roads Moorum is obtained due to the disintegration of igneous

rocks by weathering agencies. In this road, the surfacing of the traffic way is
constructed from moorum. This road is also a low cost type of road and is
equivalent to the gravel and kankar road in its performance.

(e) Water Bound Macadam (WBM) Roads Water Bound Macadam road is
named after a Scot Engineer John Macadam. Water Bound Macadam
(WBM) road is of better quality than the ordinary earth, gravel, Kankar and
moorum roads. The term macadam nowadays is referred to the crushed stone
which is used in the construction of base course of the road.

(f) Bituminous Roads Roads which have bitumen associated as the binder
material are termed as bituminous roads. Since the top of bituminous roads
is blackish these are also termed as black top roads. These roads are so
popular that most of the roads not only in India, but also in the world are
constructed using bitumen one way or the other. These roads are constructed
with varying aggregate sizes, composition and with different types of
bituminous binders. Hence there are various techniques in their construction.
Bituminous pavements are constructed in thickness varying from the thin
layer as in the case of surface dressing to as much as 20–25 cm thickness,
depending upon the subgrade and traffic requirements. When provided on
the top of any existing road surface, bitumen pavement increases passenger
comfort by eliminating the dust nuisance and it also provides protection to
the road strata below it.

(g) Cement Concrete Roads Cement concrete roads are of high standard.
These are the costliest of all types of roads. These roads provide an excellent
riding surface and pleasing appearance. Cement concrete roads are called
rigid pavements because they do not allow any flexibility. These roads
although require heavy initial expenditure but because of their long span of
life, excellent riding surface and negligible maintenance cost, these prove to
be cheaper than bituminous roads. Moreover, engineers have more
confidence in cement concrete material and they also like to construct these
roads.

Difference Between Flexible and Rigid Pavement

HARBOUR

A harbour is the main component of a seaport which is a partially

enclosed water area where the ships can find refuge from storms and waves.
Here, there are facilities for refueling, repairs and cargo handling in addition
to other services. There are two classes of harbours, namely, natural
harbours and artificial harbours. Chennai and Tuticorin harbours are
artificial harbours where a portion of sea is enclosed by the construction of
suitable breakwaters. Mumbai and Cochin have natural harbours where the
ships get protection by existing islands, bays and mountains around the
water spread. The wave action is minimised in these enclosed areas.
Harbours are further classified as military, commercial, fishing and refuge
harbours

To fulfill its function, a harbour must satisfy the following three

requirements.

1. The harbour should have sufficient depth of channel for the draft of
vessels using it.

2. Sufficient protection for ships should be provided against destructive

wave action.

3. The bottom of the harbour area should provide sufficient anchorage for
ships against high winds. River ports serve for landing of freight from river
boats and barges in up country locations. Some river ports are developed at a
river mouth for serving ocean traffic. Kolkata (Calcutta) harbour is an
example. Layout of an harbour is shown in Fig.
 A harbour requires extensive area for its operation. The extent of area
depends on the sizes, number and types of ships which it attracts.
Considerable space is required for a ship at anchor in a harbour basin. So the
harbour basin has to be planned for receiving the ships, anchoring them,
mooring them to wharves for loading and unloading operations and for
guiding the ships out of the basin after loading operations. The basin is to be
planned taking future traffic requirement in terms of changes in size, weight
and draft of ships. In addition, sufficient land area should be provided for
corresponding increase in shore operations.

A marine terminal is that part of a port or harbour which provides

docking for ships, cargo handling and storage area. The wharf area
exclusively used for passenger embarkation and disembarkation and light
cargo transshipment is called a passenger terminal. When cargo traffic is the
main function, the terminal is referred to as a freight or cargo terminal.
When ores, petroleum products, cement and grains are stored and handled, it
is known as a bulk cargo terminal.

TUNNEL

A tunnel is an underground or undersea passageway. It is dug through

surrounding soil, earth or rock, or laid under water, and is enclosed except
for the entrance and exit, commonly at each end. A pipeline is not a tunnel,
though some recent tunnels have used immersed tube construction
techniques rather than traditional tunnel boring methods.

A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or
for a canal. The central portions of a rapid transit network are usually in the
tunnel. Some tunnels are used as sewers or aqueducts to supply water for
consumption or for hydroelectric stations. Utility tunnels are used for routing
steam, chilled water, electrical power or telecommunication cables, as well
as connecting buildings for convenient passage of people and equipment.

Secret tunnels are built for military purposes, or by civilians

for smuggling of weapons, contraband, or people. Special tunnels, such
as wildlife crossings, are built to allow wildlife to cross human-made
barriers safely. Tunnels can be connected together in tunnel networks.
AIRPORT

Air transport has grown to be a crucial part of the modern transportation systems
in India. The necessity of well-planned airports for efficient air transportation will
increase as the community grows and expands both in population and economic activity.

FUNCTIONS OF AIRPORT

1. It saves travel time tremendously.

2. Long distance travel and reaching inaccessible areas become possible and
easy.

3. It facilitates aerial photography.

4. It provides facility for rapid and efficient handling of cargo.

5. It provides uninterrupted service during defence operations.

6. It is highly useful in rescue operations during the natural calamities.

7. It links different cultures, people by linking the countries.

8. It acts as one of the sources of foreign exchange generation.

9. It encourages tourism in a better way.

10. It has provisions for telegraph and telecom services

COMPONENTS OF AN AIRPORT

An ideal airport essentially consists of runways, taxiways, parking

areas and cargo and mail handling building. The final development is often
subdivided into suitable stages of construction, such that the completion of
each stage provides complete and usable facility, adequate to meet the needs
of the area to be served. Figure shows a typical layout of an airport.
Runway

A strip of land surfaced for the take off and landing of aircrafts in an
airport is called a runway. A runway is a levelled, obstruction free and
structurally safe strip. It is necessary to select the type of pavement, location
and construction of runways and taxiways which permit maximum use of the
landing area

Taxiway

The connection between the runway and the terminal building is

called a taxiway. It is provided from the terminal area to each end of each
runway.

Apron

The portion of airport, which is usually paved, in front of the terminal

building or adjacent to hangars, meant for parking, loading and unloading of
aircrafts is known as an apron.

Terminal Building

Terminal building shown in Fig usually refers to a building mainly

used for passengers, airlines and administration facilities. It has a layout
which offers the enplaning passengers, a convenient and direct access form
the vehicle platform or street side of the building, through the booking and
waiting rooms, to the aircraft loading positions on the apron

Control Tower

The control tower is located in the terminal area. The control tower is
nerve centre of an airport. Safety of aircraft operations and the effective
capacity of an airport depend upon the skill of the controller operating the
system.

Hangar

It is a large shed erected at the airport for the purpose of housing and
repairing aircrafts. Hangars are usually constructed by using steel frames and
are covered with sheets of galvanised iron. Service hangars are provided
with machine shops, stores of spare parts and facilities to carry on the repairs
in all types of weather.

Pavement

Airport pavements are designed to support aircraft wheel loads and

the intensity of load on the runway surface and to provide an even surface
free form loose particles. They should require minimum maintenance and
repair. Both rigid and flexible pavements are used.
Drainage

The design of an airport drainage system is based mainly on the

rainfall intensity and frequency and ability of turfed areas to absorb rainfall.
The slope of the runway centre line is restricted and transverse slopes of
runways and taxiways must be relatively flat.

Marking and Lighting

In the interest of safety to air navigation, certain standards have been

laid for marking and lighting of airport facilities. The airports should be
marked so that pilots can spot it easily.

COMPONENTS OF RAILWAYS

PERMANENT WAY

The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers and resting on ballast and

subgrade is called the railway track or permanent way. Sometimes
temporary tracks are also laid
for conveyance of earth and
materials for construction
works. The name permanent
way is given to distinguish the
final layout from these
temporary tracks. The cross-
section of a permanent way is
shown in Fig
COMPONENTS OF A RAILWAY TRACK

Gauge

The gauge of a railway track is defined as the clear distance between

inner or running faces of two track rails. Figure illustrates a gauge

Rails

The rails on the track can be considered as steel girders carrying axle
loads. They are made of high carbon steel to withstand wear and tear.

Sleepers

Sleepers are laid transverse to the rails. Rails are supported and fixed
on them. They are laid to transfer the load from rails to the ballast and
subgrade.

Track Fittings Rail

fixtures and fastenings are used to keep the rails in a proper position
and to set the points and crossings properly. Important rail fittings are as
follows. 1. Fish plate 2. Spike 3. Bolt 4. Chairs 5. Blocks 6. Keys 7.
Plates

Ballast

Ballast is the granular material usually comprising broken stone and

like blue granite stone around the sleepers to transmit load from sleepers to
formation and at the same time allowing drainage of the track. It provides a
suitable foundation for the sleepers and also holds the sleeper in their correct
position by preventing their displacement by lateral or longitudinal thrusts.
The lateral stability of a track depends on the ballast.

SOURCES OF WATER

• Surface sources of water include rivers, streams, lakes ponds, etc.

• There is large variation in the water yield of such sources, which vary
from season to season.

• The development, reliability and quantity of water mainly depend on the

following:

1. The selection of the site for collection works

2. Preparation and control of the catchment area

3. Type and choice of the reservoir

4. The treatment of the reservoir sites as well as operation of the reservoir

5. The design and maintenance of dams and dikes

6. The design, construction and maintenance of intake and outlet facilities

All sources of water can be broadly classified as:

(i) Streams
(ii) Lakes
(iii) Ponds
(iv) Rivers
(v) Reservoirs
(vi) Stored rainwater

These can be further divided as

(i) Springs
(ii) Infiltration galleries
(iii) Porous pipe galleries
(iv) Wells

Drinking Water Quality Standards as per BIS

HYDROLOGY

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the hydrological
cycle, is a biogeochemical cycle that describes the continuous movement
of water on, above
and below the
surface of
the Earth. The mass
of water on Earth
remains fairly
constant over time
but the partitioning
of the water into the
major reservoirs
of ice, fresh
water, saline water
(salt water) and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range
of climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such
as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical
processesof evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltrati
on, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through
different forms: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor.

RAINWATER HARVESTING

Rainwater harvesting is the simple process or technology used to conserve

rainwater by collecting, storing, conveying and purifying of rainwater that
runs off from rooftops, parks, roads, open grounds, etc. for later use. Here,
let us have a look at the diagram of rainwater harvesting system.

Rainwater harvesting systems consists of the following components:

 Catchment- Used to collect and store the captured rainwater.

 Conveyance system – It is used to transport the harvested water from
the catchment to the recharge zone.
 Flush- It is used to flush out the first spell of rain.
  Filter – Used for filtering the collected rainwater and removing
pollutants.
 Tanks and the recharge structures: Used to store the filtered water
which is ready to use.
The process of rainwater harvesting involves the collection and the storage
of rainwater with the help of artificially designed systems that run off
naturally or man-made catchment areas like- the rooftop, compounds, rock
surface, hill slopes, artificially repaired impervious or semi-pervious land
surface.
Several factors play a vital role in the amount of water harvested. Some of
these factors are:

 The quantum of runoff

 Features of the catchments
 Impact on the environment
 Availability of the technology
 The capacity of the storage tanks
 Types of the roof, its slope and its materials
 The frequency, quantity and the quality of the rainfall
 The speed and ease with which the rainwater penetrates through the
subsoil to recharge the groundwater

Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting

The benefits of the rainwater harvesting system are listed below.

 Less cost.
 Helps in reducing the water bill.
 Decreases the demand for water.
 Reduces the need for imported water.
 Promotes both water and energy conservation.
 Improves the quality and quantity of groundwater.
 Does not require a filtration system for landscape irrigation.
 This technology is relatively simple, easy to install and operate.
  It reduces soil erosion, stormwater runoff, flooding, and pollution of
surface water with fertilizers, pesticides, metals and other sediments.
 It is an excellent source of water for landscape irrigation with no
chemicals, dissolved salts and free from all minerals.

Disadvantages of Rainwater Harvesting

In addition to the great advantages, the rainwater harvesting system has a
few disadvantages like unpredictable rainfall, unavailability of the proper
storage system, etc.
Listed below are a few more disadvantages of the rainwater harvesting
process.

 Regular maintenance is required.

 Requires some technical skills for installation.
 Limited and no rainfall can limit the supply of rainwater.
 If not installed correctly, it may attract mosquitoes and other
waterborne diseases.
 One of the significant drawbacks of the rainwater harvesting system is
storage limits.

DAM

A dam can be defined as an impervious barrier or an obstruction constructed

across a natural stream or a river to hold up water on one side of it, up to a
certain level. As shown in Fig.

The side on which water is getting stored is called upstream side and
the other side is called the downstream side. The stored water on the
upstream side constitutes the reservoir.
PURPOSE OF DAMS

The construction of a dam across a river results in the ponding of water on

its upstream side and this serves many useful purposes for mankind. They
are as follows:

1. The stored water in the dam can be conveniently used for irrigation
purposes.

2. The reservoir forms a very good source for water supply in areas where
groundwater source is inadequate.

3. If sufficient head of water is stored, then that can be used for power
generation (hydel power).

4. In case of heavy floods, if water is left unobstructed, the result will be

very hazardous involving irrecoverable loss of lives of human beings,
animals, etc., and loss of property. A dam across the river can act as a good
flood-control measure by only letting out the excess quantity of water.

5. A dam with its green surroundings forms an excellent place for recreation
purposes such as boating, swimming and water skiing.
6. The reservoir forms a good place for the breeding of fish, which is a
considerable wealth from dam. Fish are bred by the pisciculture department.

7. Besides the above-mentioned purposes, a dam serves many

miscellaneous purposes, such as adding beauty to the place where it is
located and making it a place of tourism importance. The atmospheric heat
around the reservoir and its surroundings is controlled well due to the large
exposed area of water in the reservoir.

Classification Of Dam Based on Function

On the basis of function, dams may be classified in the following
categories.
(i)Storage Dam or Impounding Dam. A storage dam is constructed
to create a reservoir to store water during the period when the flow in the
river is in excess of the demand, for utilisation later on during the period
when the demand exceeds the flow in the river. The water stored in the
reservoir so created may be used for various purposes such as irrigation,
hydroelectric power generation, water supply etc.

(ii) Detention Dam. A detention dam is primarily constructed to

temporarily detain all or part of the flood waters of a river and to gradually
release the stored water at controlled rates so that the entire region on the
downstream side of the dam may be safeguarded against the possible
damage due to floods. A detention dam may also be used as a storage dam.
Similarly by suitable operation of the reservoir a storage dam may also be
used as a detention dam.

(iii) Diversion Dam. A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose

of diverting part or all of the water from a river into a conduit or a channel.
Mostly for the purpose of diversion of water from a river into an irrigation
canal a weir is constructed across a river which is known as diversion weir.

(iv) Coffer Dam. A coffer dam is a temporary dam constructed to

exclude water from a specific area. Such a dam is invariably constructed on
the upstream side of the site where actual dam is to be constructed so that the
site for the constructional work is rendered dry. The coffer dam constructed
in this case also behaves as a diversion dam. (v) Debris Dam. A debris dam
is constructed to catch and retain debris such as sand, gravel, silt and drift
wood flowing along with water in the river.
Classification Of Reservoirs Based on Use

Depending upon the specific purpose served, the reservoirs may also
be classified as follows.

1. Storage or conservation reservoirs

2. Flood control reservoirs

3. Distribution reservoirs.

1. Storage or Conservation Reservoirs. A storage reservoir is

constructed to store the excess water that flows in the river during the period
of high flows for later use for various purposes. Storage reservoirs are
primarily used for supply of water for irrigation, development of
hydroelectric power and domestic and industrial water supply. However, to
some extent these reservoirs also help in moderating the floods and thus
provide protection against floods on the downstream side. Depending upon
the purpose served, these reservoirs may be designated as single purpose
reservoirs and multipurpose reservoirs.

2. Flood Control Reservoirs. A flood control reservoir is constructed

to protect the area lying on its downstream side from the damages due to
floods and hence it is known as flood protection reservoir or flood mitigation
reservoir. Usually these reservoirs serve only one purpose viz., flood control
and hence these are designated as single purpose Reservoirs

3.Distribution Reservoirs. A distribution reservoir is a small storage

reservoir used for water supply in a city. Such a reservoir is required to
fulfill the varying demands of the consumers at different periods of the day.
Water is continuously pumped into the reservoir at a constant rate and is
supplied to the consumers from the reservoir. During the periods of no
demand or demand less than the pumping rate water is stored in the reservoir
but during the periods of demand exceeding the pumping rate water is
supplied by the reservoir from its storage.