1 The two body problem (Concept of reduced mass)

We consider a system of two particles of masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance ‘r’, acted
upon by external forces ‘F~1 ’, ‘F~2 ’ and internal forces ‘F~12 ’, ‘F~21 ’ respectively.

Figure 1: System of two particles

From the figure we can clearly say that;

∴ ~r2 + ~r = ~r1
⇒ ~r = ~r1 − ~r2
where, G is their center of mass. From Newton’s Third law of motion, we know,
F~12 = −F~21
Hence, the equation of motion of the two particles becomes,
d2~r1
m1 = F~12 + F~1 (1)
dt2
and,
2
d ~r2
m2 = F~21 + F~2 (2)
dt2
Now on multiplying equation (1) by m2 and (2) by m1 ; and then subtracting (2) from (1) we
get,
d2
∴ m1 m2 (~r1 − ~r2 ) = m2 F~12 + m2 F~1 − m1 F~21 − m1 F~2
dt2 !
d2~r F~1 ~2 h
F i
⇒ m1 m2 2 = (m1 + m2 ) F~12 + m1 m2 − ∵ F~12 = −F~21 & ~r = ~r1 − ~r2
dt m1 m2
 ~ !

m1 m2
 2
d ~r

m 1 m 2 F 1 F~2
⇒ = F~12 + −
m1 + m2 dt2 m1 + m2 m1 m2
! 
d2~r ~1
F ~2
F m1 m2

⇒ µ 2 = F12 + µ ~ − ∵ Let, µ =
dt m1 m2 m1 + m2

where, ‘µ’ is known as the reduced mass of the two particle system. Now if; F~1 = F~2 = 0, or
~1
F ~2
F
m1
=m 2
, then the above equation becomes,

d2~r
µ = F~12
dt2

3
This equation gives the equation of motion of a particle of mass,‘µ’ acted upon by an internal
force, ‘F~12 ’. Thus the motion of the particle with mass, ‘m1 ’, when viewed from mass, ‘m2 ’, is
same as if the particle of mass ‘m2 ’ is fixed and the particle in motion has mass ‘µ’. In this
way we reduce the two body problem to a one body problem.
If we consider the system of earth and sun in our solar system with masses m and M respectively.
Then, the reduced mass of the system becomes,
1 1 1
∴ = +
µ M m
Now since, M >> m hence,
1 1
∴ =
µ m
⇒ µ = m

Hence, for the systems of infinity mass we approximate the reduced mass to be the mass of the
particle with lower mass in the system.

2 Basic properties of central force

A force is said to be a central force if it is always directed towards or away from a fixed point and
its magnitude depends upon the distance from that point. So, a central force can be expressed
as;
F~ (~r) = f (r)r̂ (3)
where, ‘r̂’ is the unit vector along the position vector, ‘~r’.
If ‘f (r)’ is positive then the central force is repulsive in nature or else, it is attractive in nature.

2.1 Central force is conservative

~
A force is said to be conservative when it can be expressed as, −∇Φ, where, ‘Φ’ is the potential
due to the force field. Now from the definition of central force (equation (3)), a central force,
‘F~ ’, can be written as,
F~ = f (r)r̂ (4)
where, ‘~r’, is the position vector of a point on which the central force, ‘F~ ’, is acting upon.
And now,
~ × F~ = ∇
∇ ~ × (f (r)r̂) (Equation(4))

r̂ rθ̂ r sin θ φ̂
1 ∂ ∂ ∂
= 2 ∂r ∂θ ∂φ
r sin θ
f (r) 0 0
= ~0
~ × F~ = ~0, hence, ‘F~ ’ can be written as,
Since, it is proved that, ∇

F~ = −∇Φ
~

which proves that the central force, ‘F~ ’, is a conservative force.

4
2.2 Angular momentum in central force field is conserved
We know that angular momentum of a point with position vector, ‘~r’, can be written as,
~ = ~r × p~
L
where, ‘~p’ is the linear momentum of the system. Now on differentiating the above equation
with respect to time, we get;
~
dL d~r d~p
∴ = × p~ + ~r ×
dt dt dt

Since we know that,

d~p
= F~
dt
and, from the definition of central force, F~ = f (r)r̂
Hence,
~
dL
= ~v × (m~v ) + ~r × (f (r)r̂)
dt
~
dL
⇒ = ~0 + ~0
dt
~
dL
⇒ = ~0
dt
~ = const.
∴ L
~ of the particle in a central force field is conserved
Which implies that the angular momentum(L),
or constant.

2.3 Central force is planer

From the above part, it is evident that angular momentum of the system in central force field
is always constant, i.e.;
~ = ~r × p~ = const.
L
Now, multiplying the above equation by ‘~r ’,
~ = ~r · (~r × p~)
~r · L
~ = p~ · (~r × ~r)
⇒ ~r · L
~ = 0
⇒ ~r · L
Thus the above result shows that the position vector,‘~r ’ is always perpendicular to the direction
of the angular momentum,‘L’, ~ which is always constant. Hence, the motion of the particle in a
central force field is always in a same plane, i.e., planar.

3 Equation of motion of a particle in central force field

3.1 Using Polar coordinates
As the motion of a particle in central force field is always planer, hence it is more convenient
to use plane polar coordinates (r, θ), to describe its motion. Now, acceleration of the particle
can be written as,
~a = ar r̂ + aθ θ̂

5
    
⇒ ~a = r̈ − rθ̇2 r̂ + rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇ θ̂

And, in central force field, according to equation(3),

F~ = f (r)r̂ = µ~a

Where, ‘µ’ is known as the reduced mass of the system in central force field. Now,
   
2
f (r)r̂ = µ r̈ − rθ̇ r̂ + µ rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇ θ̂

On comparing the components of r̂ and θ̂ in the above equation, we get,

 
∴ f (r) = µ r̈ − rθ̇2 (5)
and,
 
∴ 0 = µ rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇ (6)

Hence, on multiplying equation (6) by ‘r’, on both sides we get,

 
µ r2 θ̈ + 2rṙθ̇ = 0
d  2 
⇒ µr θ̇ = 0
dt
∴ µr2 θ̇ = const.
~
But, the angular momentum,‘L’,
~ = ~r × p~ (∵ p~ → linear momentum)
L
= ~r × (µ~v ) (∵ ~v → linear velocity)
 
= µ~r × ṙr̂ + rθ̇θ̂
 
= µr2 θ̇ r̂ × θ̂

∴ L = µr2 θ̇ (7)
which is the magnitude of angular momentum and is always constant in central force field
(previously proven). Now from equation (5),
 
2
f (r) = µ r̈ − rθ̇
⇒ µr̈ = µrθ̇2 + f (r)
µ2 r4 θ̇2
= + f (r)
µr3
L2
= + f (r) [∵ L = µr2 θ̇]
µr3

L2
⇒ µr̈ = f (r) + (8)
µr3
which is the equation of motion of the particle in a central force field.

6
3.2 Using Reciprocal polar coordinates
In reciprocal coordinate system (u, θ), the value of ‘u’ is ‘ 1r ’. Where, ‘r’ is the radius in polar
coordinate system (r, θ). Therefore, we can write,
1
r=
u
On differentiating the above equation with respect to time (t), we get,
 
d 1
∴ ṙ =
dt u
 
d 1 dθ
⇒ ṙ =
dθ u dt
1 du
⇒ ṙ = − 2 θ̇
u dθ
du
⇒ ṙ = −r2 θ̇
dθ
L du
⇒ ṙ = − [∵ L = µr2 θ̇]
µ dθ
Again differentiating the above equation with respect to time (t),
 
L d du
∴ r̈ = −
µ dt dθ
L d2 u
⇒ r̈ = − θ̇
µ dθ2
Lθ̇ d2 u
⇒ r̈ = −
µ dθ2
L2 d 2 u
 
L
⇒ r̈ = − 2 2 2 ∵ θ̇ = 2
µ r dθ µr

Now, on putting the value of ‘r̈’ form the above result, in equation (8), we get,

L2 d 2 u L2
−µ = f (r) +
µ2 r2 dθ2 µr3
L2 u 2 d 2 u L2 u 3
   
1 1
⇒ − = f + ∵ r=
µ dθ2 u µ u
2 2 2 2 3
 
Lu du Lu 1
⇒ − − = f
µ dθ2 µ u

d2 u
 
µ 1
⇒ 2 +u = − 2 2 f (9)
dθ Lu u
This is the differential equation of the orbital motion of particles in a central force field and
can be solved if laws of force, ‘f (r)’ is given.

Equation(9) can be written in another form.

From reciprocal polar coordinate we know that;
1
∴ u=
r
7
Now differentiating the above equation with respect to, ‘θ’, we get,
 
du d 1
∴ =
dθ dθ r
du 1 dr
⇒ = − 2
dθ r dθ
Again, differentiating the above equation with respect to, ‘θ’,
d2 u
 
d du
∴ =
dθ2 dθ dθ
2
 
du d 1 dr
⇒ = − 2
dθ2 dθ r dθ
 2
d2 u 1 d2 r 2 dr
⇒ = − 2 2+ 3
dθ2 r dθ r dθ
d2 u
On putting the value of in equation (9), we
dθ 2
get,
 2
1 d2 r
 
2 dr µ 1
∴ − 2 2+ 3 +u = − 2 2 f
r dθ r dθ Lu u
 2
1 d2 r µr2
 
2 dr 1 1
⇒ − 2 2+ 3 + = − f (r) ∵ u=
r dθ r dθ r L2 r
2
 2
d r 2 dr µr4
⇒ − −r = − f (r) (10)
dθ2 r dθ L2
Which is also a differential equation of the orbit of a particle in central force field but expressed
in polar coordinate system.

4 Energy expression of a particle in central force field

We can write the total energy (E), of the particle in central force field as,
1
E = µv 2 + V (r)
2
where, ‘~v ’ is the linear velocity of the particle, ‘µ’ is the reduced mass of the system and ‘V (r)’
is the potential energy of the particle. Using polar coordinate system (r, θ), we can write,
1     h i
E = µ ṙr̂ + rθ̇θ̂ · ṙr̂ + rθ̇θ̂ + V (r) ∵ ~v = ṙr̂ + rθ̇θ̂
2
1  2 
⇒ E = µ ṙ + r2 θ̇2 + V (r)
2 "
 2 #  
1 2 2 L L
⇒ E = µ ṙ + r + V (r) ∵ θ̇ = 2
2 µr2 µr
1 2 1 2 L2
⇒ E = µṙ + µr 2 4 + V (r)
2 2 µr
2
1 2 L
⇒ E = µṙ + + V (r)
2 2µr2
L 2
Where, “ 2µr 2 + V (r)”, can be considered as the effective potential energy, ‘Vef f (r)’. Hence, the

energy expression of the particle in central force field becomes,

1
∴ E = µṙ2 + Vef f (r) (11)
2

8
4.1 Energy expression in reciprocal polar coordinate system
The total energy of the particles in central force field can also be expressed in another form.
From reciprocal polar coordinate system (u, θ), we know,
1
r=
u
Now on differentiating the above equation with respect to time (t), we get,
 
d 1
ṙ =
dt u
 
d 1 dθ
⇒ ṙ =
dθ u dt
1 du
⇒ ṙ = − 2 θ̇
u dθ
du
⇒ ṙ = −r2 θ̇
dθ
L du
⇒ ṙ = − [∵ L = µr2 θ̇]
µ dθ
Hence, putting the value of ‘ṙ’, in in equation (11), we get,
2
L2
    
1 L du 1 1
E = − + $ 1
2 + V ∵ u=
2 µ dθ 2µ u u r
2
1 L2 du L2 u2
   
1
⇒ E = µ 2 + +V
2 µ dθ 2µ u
"  #
2 2  
L du 1
⇒ E = + u2 + V (12)
2µ dθ u

Which is the energy expression of the particle in reciprocal coordinate system.

4.2 Total energy of a particle in central force field is constant

From the definition of central force, equation (3) we know,
   
F~ (r) = f (r)r̂ = µ r̈ − rθ̇2 r̂ + µ rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇ θ̂

where, ‘µ’ is the reduced mass of the system. On comparing the components of r̂ and θ̂ in the
above equation, we get,
 
2
∴ f (r) = µ r̈ − rθ̇
⇒ µr̈ = µrθ̇2 = f (r)

Now since, ‘F~ (r)’ is a conservative force,

~ × F~ (r) = ~0
∴ ∇

which implies,
~ (r) = − dV (r) r̂
F~ (r) = −∇V
dr
9
Hence,

µ2 r4 θ̇2 dV (r)
⇒ µr̈ = −
µr3 dr
2
L dV (r)
⇒ µr̈ = 3
− [∵ L = µr2 θ̇]
µr dr
 2 
d L
⇒ µr̈ = − + V (r)
dr 2µr2
On multiplying the above equation, both sides by ‘ṙ’, we get,
 2 
d L dr
∴ µr̈ṙ = − 2
+ V (r)
dr 2µr dt
d µṙ2
   2 
dr d L
⇒ = − + V (r)
dt 2 dt dr 2µr2
d µṙ2
   2 
d L
⇒ = − + V (r)
dt 2 dt 2µr2
L2
 
d 1 2
⇒ µṙ + + V (r) = 0
dt 2 2µr2
L2
 
d 1 2
⇒ (E) = 0 ∵ E = µṙ + + V (r)
dt 2 2µr2
1 2 L2
∴ E = µṙ + + V (r)
2 2µr2
1 2
= µṙ + Vef f (r)
2
= const.

This shows that in a planer
motion in central force field, with variation only in ‘r’, the sum of
radial kinetic energy, 12 µṙ2 and effective potential energy, (Vef f (r)) of the particle is always
$

a constant quantity.

4.3 Formal solution of a particle in orbit in central force field

We know that the energy expression of a particle in a central force field:
1 2 L2
E = µṙ + + V (r)
2 2µr2
1 2 L2
⇒ µṙ = E − V (r) −
2 2µr2
s  
2 L2
⇒ ṙ = E − V (r) −
µ 2µr2
s  
dr 2 L2
⇒ = E − V (r) −
dt µ 2µr2
s  
dr 2 L2
⇒ θ̇ = E − V (r) −
dθ µ 2µr2
  s    
L dr 2 L2 L
⇒ = E − V (r) − ∵ θ̇ = 2
µr2 dθ µ 2µr2 µr

10
 Ldr
⇒ dθ = r  
2 L2
µr2 µ
E − V (r) − 2µr 2

Now on integrating both sides of the above equation when the particle move from ‘θ0 ’ to ‘θ’ in
its orbit, we will get the following result;
Z Z θ
Ldr
r   = dθ
2 L 2 θ
µr2 µ E − V (r) − 2µr2 0

Z
Ldr
⇒ θ − θ0 = r  
L2
µr2 µ2 E − V (r) − 2µr 2

Z
Ldr
∴ θ = θ0 + r   (13)
2 L2
µr2 µ
E − V (r) − 2µr 2

is the formal solution of the orbit of a particle when it moves in a central force field.

5 Motion in inverse square law

In general, central force can be described as,

F~ (r) = f (r)r̂

But, in case the force following the inverse square law, the description of the force becomes,

k
F~ (r) = 2 r̂ (14)
r

Here, ‘f (r)’ is, ‘ rk2 ’. Where, ‘k’ is a constant.

Now in order to determine the potential energy (V ), of particle in this kind of force field we
will use the conservative nature of the force. Hence,
~ × F~ = ~0
∴ ∇
⇒ F~ (r) = −∇V
~ (r)
k dV (r)
⇒ 2 r̂ = − r̂ [f rom, equ. (14)]
r dr
Now on integrating the above equation, we get the potential energy of a particle in a force field
which follows inverse square law as,
Z r
k
∴ V (r) = − 2
dr
∞ r
k
⇒ V (r) =
r
So, the effective potential energy (Ve ), will be,

L2 k L2
Ve = V (r) + = + (15)
2µr2 r 2µr2

11
From equation (15), it is clear that, for (k > 0), effective potential (Ve ) is positive and will tend
to ‘0’, at r → ∞ and for (k < 0), i.e.; for attractive force, effective potential (Ve ) will become
‘0’ at two points given by,
L2
 
1
k+ = 0
r 2µr
⇒ r = ∞
or,
L2
r =
2µ | k |
Thus the value of ‘r’, remains in the range,
L2
≤r≤∞
2µ | k |
According to the total energy ‘E’, there are three cases, reference→(Fig-2);

Figure 2: ‘Ve ’ v/s ‘r’ graph

12
 • Case - I
Let, E is positive and, E = E1 . The the point of intersection of this line with the Vef f
- curve, at r = r0 gives the turning point of the particle. There will not be any other
turning point so that the motion becomes unbounded and it is called the scattering state.
The orbit of the particle will be parabolic in nature. The particle will also show similar
type of behaviour at E = 0.

• Case - II
When, E is negative and, E = E2 , then there will be two points of intersection of the
E2 - line with the Vef f - curve, at r = r1 and r = r3 . In this condition, the particle will
have two turning points and the motion is bounded. Hence the orbit of the particle will
be closed and elliptic in nature.

• Case - III
Lastly, when E is negative and E = E3 , it is such that the E3 - line touches the Vef f -
curve, at r = r2 (lowest point). At the point of contact,

dVe
∴ = 0
dr
L2 L2
  
d k k
⇒ + = 0 ∵ Ve = +
dr r 2µr2 r 2µr2
k 3L2
⇒ 2− = 0
r 2µr3
L2
⇒ r =
µk
L2
⇒ r2 = [∵ r = r2 ]
µk
which suggests that the path which the particle follows is bounded and is circular in
nature.

5.1 Equation of orbit in inverse square law (Kepler’s first law)

In case of Gravitational Force, the nature of the force following inverse square law is always
attractive and can be written as;
−k
F~ (r) = f (r)r̂ = 2 r̂
r
because, k is negative for attractive force. The above equation implies that from this kind of
situation,
−k
∴ f (r) = 2
r
Now from the differential equation of orbit of a particle in central force field we know,

d2 u
 
µ 1
2 +u = − 2 2 f
dθ Lu u

Here, f u1 = −ku2 , since, u = 1r ,

$

d2 u µ $ 2


∴ 2 + u = − 2 2 −k u
dθ Lu

13
 d2 u µk
⇒ 2 +u =
dθ L2
2
du µk
⇒ 2 +u− = 0
dθ L2

µk
Let, z = u − L2
, Now on double differentiating ‘z’ with respect to ‘θ’, we get,

d2 z d2 u
∴ 2 =
dθ dθ2
2 µk
Now, on putting the value of ‘ ddθu2 ’ and ‘u − L2
’ in the above equation, we get,

d2 z
+z =0 (16)
dθ2
One of the solution of equation (16) is,

z = A cos(θ − α)

where, ‘α’ and ‘A’ are constants. So we have,

µk
∴ z = u−
L2
= A cos(θ − α)
µk
⇒ u = + A cos(θ − α)
 2 L2
L
AL2
 
µk 1
⇒ = 1+ cos(θ − α) ∵ u= (17)
r µk r

Now from the equation of a conic in polar system we know that,

l
= 1 + ǫ cos(θ − α) (18)
r
where , ‘l’ is known as the semi-latus rectum and ‘ǫ’ is known as the eccentricity of the conic.
On comparing equations (17) and (18), we have,

L2
∴ l =
µk
and,
AL2
∴ ǫ =
µk

The form of the conic (orbit of the particle), depends on the value of ‘A’, since the value of ‘ǫ’
depends on the value of ‘A’.

• If ‘ǫ = 1’, then the orbit will be a parabola.

• If ‘ǫ < 1’, then the orbit will be an ellipse; in which case if ‘ǫ = 0’, it is a circular orbit.

• If ‘ǫ > 1’, then the orbit will be hyperbolic.

14
 Figure 3: Shape of the orbit as a function of eccentricity, ǫ

Form equation (17), we have,

 2
L
µk AL2
∴ = 1+ cos(θ − α)
r µk
1 µk
⇒ = + A cos(θ − α)
r L2
1
⇒ rmax = µk
[∵ cos(θ − α) = −1]
L2
−A
and,
1
rmin = µk
[∵ cos(θ − α) = 1]
L2
+A
Also, both ‘rmax ’ and ‘rmin ’ are positive values. Hence,
µk
∴ ≥ A
L2
µk
⇒ ≥ 1
L2 A
L2 A
⇒ ≤ 1
µk

15
 AL2
 
⇒ ǫ ≤ 1 ∵ ǫ=
µk
Which implies that the orbit of a planetary motion is always either parabolic or elliptical or
circular in nature according to, ‘ǫ = 1’, ‘ǫ < 1’ and, ‘ǫ = 0’ respectively. Hence, it confirms
Kepler’s First Law of planetary motion.

The equation of orbit using the energy expression

We know that in inverse square law, the potential V (r) of a particle due to the force field is,
k
V (r) = −
r
On putting the value of V (r) in energy equation (11), we get,
1 L2 k
E = µṙ2 + 2
− (19)
2 2µr r
Now, on differentiating equation (17) with respect to time t we have,
ṙ
∴ − = −A sin(θ − α)θ̇
r2
ṙ L2 h i
⇒ 2 = A sin(θ − α) 2 ∵ L = µr2 θ̇
r µr
LA
⇒ ṙ = sin(θ − α)
µ
Now on substituting the value of r and ṙ in equation (19), we get,
1 L2 A2 L2 k
∴ E = µ 2 sin2 (θ − α) + 2
−
2 µ 2µr r
2 2 2
 2
1 LA 2 L µk
⇒ E = µ sin (θ − α) + + A cos(θ − α)
2 µ2 2µ L2
   
µk 1 µk
− k + A cos(θ − α) ∵ = 2 + A cos(θ − α)
L2 r L
L2 A2 µk 2
⇒ E = − 2
2µ 2L
L2 A2 µk 2
⇒ = E+ 2
2µ 2L
µk 2
 
2µ
⇒ A2 = E +
L2 2L2
s  
2µ µk 2
⇒ A = E+ 2
L2 2L
s  
µ2 k 2 2L2 E
⇒ A = +1
L4 µk 2

Now we know that the eccentricity ǫ, of the orbit is,

AL2
∴ ǫ =
µk

16
  21 " s #
2L2 E
 
µ2 k 2 2L2 E
⇒ ǫ = +1 ∵ A= +1
µk 2 L4 µk 2

For,

• When, energy E is negative (E < 0), ǫ < 1, and orbit is elliptical in nature.

• When, energy E is zero (E = 0), ǫ = 1, and orbit is parabolic in nature.

• When, energy E is positive (E > 0), ǫ > 1, and orbit is hyperbolic in nature.

In case of the central force obeying inverse square law, energy of the particle E is either negative
or zero (E ≤ 0). Hence, ǫ ≤ 1 which implies that the orbit of the particle obeying inverse square
is either a parabolic one or it is elliptical in nature. It confirms Kepler’s First Law of planetary
motion.

5.2 Kepler’s second law

The transverse component of acceleration, ‘aθ ’ is always zero in central force fields, i.e.;
 
∴ µ rθ̈ + 2ṙθ̇ = 0

Hence, on multiplying the above equation by ‘r’, on both sides we get,

 
µ r2 θ̈ + 2rṙθ̇ = 0
d  2 
⇒ µr θ̇ = 0
dt
∴ µr2 θ̇ = const.

Which implies that the magnitude of angular momentum ‘L’, is always a constant value.

Figure 4: Areal velocity illustration

From the above figure, ‘∆θ’, is the angular displacement of the planet which moves from
the point ‘P ’ to ‘P ′ ’ in a very small time interval ‘∆t’. Hence the area swept out by the line
OP in time ‘∆t’ is given by,
1 r2
∆A = r (r∆θ) = ∆θ
2 2
17
Hence, the areal velocity of the planet is,
∆A r2 ∆θ
lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t 2 ∆t→0 ∆t
r2
= θ̇
2
L h i
= ∵ L = µr2 θ̇
2µ
= const.

So, the areal velocity of a planet in an elliptical planetary orbit is always constant, which proves
Kepler’s Second Law of planetary motion.

5.3 Kepler’s third law

The planets move around sun in an elliptical orbit. If, ‘a’ and ‘b’ are the semi major and semi
minor axis of the ellipse respectively, then the total area of the ellipse is,

A = πab

Hence, the areal velocity,

dA πab
=
dt T
where, ‘T ’ is the total time period of revolution of the planet around the sun. Again from
Kepler’s second law of planetary motion,
dA L
∴ =
dt 2µ
 
L πab dA πab
⇒ = ∵ =
2µ T dt T
On squaring both sides, we get,
L2 π 2 a2 b 2
∴ =
4µ2 T2
4µ2 π 2 a2 b2
⇒ T2 =
L2
But we know that, semi-latus rectum ‘l’, is related by the following relation,
b2
l =
a
⇒ b2 = la

Hence, on putting the value of ‘b2 ’, in the above equation we get,

4µ2 π 2 la3
∴ T2 =
L2
4µ2 π 2 l

2 3
⇒ T ∝ a ∵ = const.
L2
which proves, Kepler’s Third Law of planetary motion, which states that the square of the time
period of revolution a planet in its orbit around its star is always proportional to the cube of
the distance between the star and the planet.

18
6 Numerical problems on Central force
Problem 1
A particle of mass m moves along the X −axis under the influence of a conservative force having
potential V (x). If the particle is located at position x1 and x2 at time t1 and t2 respectively;
prove that: r Z x2
m dx
t2 − t1 = p
2 x1 E − V (r)

Solution:

From the expression of total energy of a particle in central force field, we know that,
1
E = mv 2 + V (x)
2
where, V (x) is the given potential of the central force, v is the velocity and m is the mass
of the particle
Now we know that velocity of a particle at any instant is,,
dx
∴ v =
dt
 2
dx
⇒ v2 =
dt

From the above energy equation we get the value of v 2 as,

2
∴ v2 = [E − V (x)]
m
Hence,
 2
2 dx
∴ [E − V (x)] =
m dt
r
2 dx
⇒ [E − V (x)] =
m dt
dx
⇒ dt = q
2
m
[E − V (x)]

On integrating the above equation from time, ‘t1 ’ to, ‘t2 ’, we get,
Z t2 Z x2
dx
∴ dt = q
2
t1 x1
m
[E − V (x)]

Hence the result is;

Z x2
dx
⇒ t2 − t1 = q
2
x1
m
[E − V (x)]

19
Problem 2
A particle of mass m moves in a circular orbit of radius r under the influence of an attractive
central force field. Show that the orbit is stable if,
 r  ∂f
f (r) < −
3 ∂r r

where, f (r) is the magnitude of the central force.

Solution:

From the energy expression of a particle in central force field, we know the effective
potential as,
L2
Ve = V (r) +
2µr2
where, L is the angular momentum of the particle due to its circular orbit in central force
field and µ is the reduced mass of the particle.
At critical points,
∂Ve
∴ = 0
∂r
L2

∂
⇒ V (r) + = 0
∂r 2µr2
 2 
∂V (r) ∂ L
⇒ + = 0
∂r ∂r 2µr2
L2
 
∂V (r)
⇒ −f (r) − 3 = 0 ∵ f (r) = −
µr ∂r
L2
⇒ f (r) = −
µr3
Now, the circular orbit of the particle will only be stable if,

∂ 2 Ve
∴ > 0
∂r2 r
∂ 2 Ve ∂f 3L2
⇒ =− + 4 > 0
∂r2 r ∂r µr
∂f 3 L2
⇒ − > −
∂r r r µr3
L2
 
∂f 3
⇒ − > f (r) ∵ f (r) = − 3
∂r r r µr

 r  ∂f
⇒ f (r) < −
3 ∂r r

Hence, the circular orbit is stable only when the above inequality holds.

20
Problem 3
Find out the total energy of a particle moving in a central force field following the inverse
square law, when the orbit is elliptical.

Solution:

Figure 5: rmax and rmin

In case of inverse square law, we have,

k k
f (r) = − and V (r) = −
r2 r
Where, f (r) is the law of the force and V (r) is the potential of the central force field.
After solving the differential equation of orbit for a particle moving in central force field
for inverse square law, we have,
1 µk
∴ = 2 + A cos(θ − α)
r L
Where, L is the angular momentum of the particle in orbit and µ is its reduced mass.
Now on comparing the above equation with the equation of a conic in polar form:
l
= 1 + ǫ cos(θ − α)
r
we get,
L2 L2 A
l= and ǫ=
µk µk
Again,
l l
=1+ǫ ⇒ rmin =
rmin 1+ǫ

21
 and,
l l
=1−ǫ ⇒ rmax =
rmax 1−ǫ
where, rmin and rmax are the apsidal distances. Now, semi-major axis a of the elliptical
orbit is,
rmin + rmax
∴ a =
 2   
l l l l l
= + ∵ rmin = and rmax =
2 1+ǫ 1−ǫ 1+ǫ 1−ǫ
l
⇒ a =
1 − ǫ2
l
⇒ = 1 − ǫ2
a
Again we know that;
L2 A
ǫ =
µk
s 
2L2 E
= 1+
µk 2
2L2 E
 
2
⇒ 1−ǫ = 1− 1+
µk 2
2L2 E
= −
µk 2
L2
 
l 2El l 2
⇒ = − ∵ = 1 − ǫ and l =
a k a µk

k
⇒ E=−
2a
Which is the energy expression of a particle in orbit in inverse square law when the orbit
is elliptical.

Problem 4
If a particle moves in a circular orbit under the influence of a central force at its centre. Prove
that its speed around the orbit must be constant.

Solution:
For a particle in central force field, the velocity of the particle is;

~v = ṙr̂ + rθ̇θ̂

Therefore, for a circular orbit,

r = const.
∴ ṙ = 0

Hence, velocity becomes,

~v = rθ̇θ̂

22
 ∴ v = rθ̇
L h
2
i
⇒ v = r ∵ L = µr θ̇
µr2
L
⇒ v =
µr
⇒ v = const.

Since, L, µ, r are all constant in a circular orbit. Hence the the velocity of a particle in
circular orbit in central force field is always a constant quantity.

Problem 5
A particle of mass m moves under a central force f (r) = − rk3 . If E is the total energy, show
that its speed (v), is given by: r
2E k
v= +
m mr2

Solution:

It is given that the central force expression is,

k
F~ = − 3 r̂
r
∂V k
⇒ f (r) = − = − 3
∂r r
where, V is the potential of the central force and by integrating the above equation we
get the expression for potential as,
Z r
k
∴ V = 3
dr
∞ r
k
⇒ V = − 2
2r
Hence the total energy of a particle of mass m and orbital speed v in this force field is:
1 2
∴ E =mv + V
2  
1 2 k k
⇒ E = mv − 2 ∵ V =− 2
2 2r 2r
k
⇒ 2E = mv 2 − 2
  r
1 k
⇒ 2E + 2 = v2
m r
r
2E k
⇒ v= +
m mr2
Hence, the expression for the speed in the given central force field is as shown above.

23
Problem 6
A particle of mass m describes an elliptical orbit about a center of attractive force at one of its
foci, given by, f (r) = − rk2 . Show that the speed (v), at any point of the orbit is given by:
s  
k 2 1
v= −
m r a

where, a is the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit.

Solution:

We know the total energy of the particle in elliptical orbit is,

k
E=− [∵ f rom prob. − 3]
2a
Here, the expression for the central force field is given as,
k
∴ F~ = f (r)r̂ = − 2
r
k ∂V
⇒ f (r) = − 2 = −
r ∂r
where, V is the potential of the central force field.
Z r
k k
∴ V = 2
dr = −
∞ r r
Hence, the total energy of the particle of mass m and orbital speed v in this force field is:
1 2 k
∴ E = mv −
2 r  
k 1 2 k k
⇒ − = mv − ∵ E=−
2a 2 r 2a
k 2k
⇒ = − mv 2
a r
2k k
⇒ mv 2 = −
s a
r

1 2k k
⇒v = −
m r a
s  
k 2 1
⇒ v= −
m r a

Hence, the expression for the speed in the given central force field is as shown above.

Problem 7
Force in a central force field is given by F~ = f (r)r̂, where, f (r) = −krn . Show that the orbit
is stable only when, n > −3.

Solution:

24
 We know from problem 2, the condition for a stable circular orbit is,
∂f 3
∴ < − f (r0 )
∂r r0 r0
And it is given that, f (r) = −krn . Hence,
∂f ∂ (−krn )
∴ = = −k n r0n−1
∂r r0 ∂r r0
∂f
Now on equating the value of ∂ r r0
, we get,
3
∴ −k n r0n−1 < − f (r0 )
r0
3 n
⇒ −k n r0n−1 < kr [∵ f (r0 ) = −kr0n ]
r0 0
⇒ −n < 3
⇒ n > −3
Hence, it is proved that a orbit in the above central force field is stable only when the
condition, (n > −3) is valid.

Problem 8
A particle of mass m described by a central force, given by the equation:
r = e−θ
Then find the law of force.

Solution:
From of the differential equation of the orbit of a particle in central force field, i.e.,
d2 u
 
µ 1
2 +u = − 2 2 f
dθ L u u
we can substitute the value of r, i.e., u = 1r = eθ , the value of du
dθ
= eθ and the value of
d2 u
dθ 2
= eθ . Hence, we get the equation of the orbit as,
 
θ −m 1
∴ e +u = 2 2
f [∵ µ = m]
Lu u
 
−m 1
⇒ eθ + eθ = f
L2 e2θ u
θ 2 2θ
 
2e L e 1
⇒ f (r) = − ∵ r=
m u
2
2L 3θ
⇒ f (r) = − e
m  
2L2 1  
⇒ f (r) = − 3
∵ r = e−θ
m r
Hence, the law of the central force F~ (r) is,
2
 
2L 1
∴ F~ (r) = − r̂
m r3

25
Problem 9
If, r = a(1 + cos θ) is the equation of orbit, find the nature of force and also graph the orbit.

Solution:
Given that,
1
∴ r = = a(1 + cos θ)
u
1
⇒ u =
a(1 + cos θ)
Now on differentiating the above equation with respect to θ, we get,
du sin θ
∴ =
dθ a(1 + cos θ)2
Again,

d2 u (1 + cos θ)2 cos θ + sin2 θ

∴ =
dθ2 a(1 + cos θ)4
d2 u cos θ 2 sin θ sin θ
⇒ 2
= 2
+ 3
·
dθ a(1 + cos θ) (1 + cos θ) a
2 2
du cos θ 2 sin θ
⇒ = +
dθ2 a(1 + cos θ)2 a(1 + cos θ)3
From of the differential equation of the orbit of a particle in central force field, i.e.,

d2 u
 
µ 1
2 +u = − 2 2 f
dθ L u u
du d2 u
we can substitute the value of dθ
and the value of dθ 2
. Hence, we get the equation of the
orbit as,

2 sin2 θ
 
cos θ 1 µ 1
∴ 2
+ 3
+ = − 2 2 f
a(1 + cos θ) a(1 + cos θ) a(1 + cos θ) Lu u
2
2 sin θ + cos θ(1 + cos θ) + (1 + cos θ)2
 
µ 1
⇒ = − 2 2 f
a(1 + cos θ)3 Lu u
 
3 + 3 cos θ µ 1
⇒ = − 2 2 f
a(1 + cos θ)3 Lu u
 
3 1 µ 1
⇒ · = − 2 2 f
a (1 + cos θ)2 Lu u
 
µ 1
⇒ 3au2 = − 2 2 f
Lu u
2 4
 
1 3aL u
⇒ f = −
u µ
3aL2
 
1
⇒ f (r) = − 4 ∵ r=
µr u
which represents the nature of the force.
The graph of the orbit for the value r = 1 is as shown below;

26
27
Problem 10.
Consider a particle of mass m moving under an attractive central force f(r) with the angular momentum L. The orbit of the
particle is a circle passing through the centre of force. Show that ∝ . Given that the equation of orbit is

+ =− , where is the azimuthal angle. [CU 2016]

Solution:
The equation of a circle passing through the centre of the coordinate,
− − =
In plane polar coordinate, = ! "# = !$"
∴ ! − + !$" =
⟹ ! − 2 cos + + !$" =
⟹ = 2 cos
+,-
So, = , = !/ 0 "
. .

= !/ 0 " + !/ 1
.
So from the equation of orbit,
456
2 sec 0 " + !/ 1
+ 7=−
. .
+89
Or, 2 + + -:+ 7 = −
. -:+ ; -:+ ;
+89 < <-:+
Or, 2 7=−
. -:+ ;

Or, 2 7=−
. -:+ ;
×>.
Or, =−
. -:+ ; ;

>.
Or, =−
Or, ∝

Problem 11.
A particle of mass m moving in a central force field describes a spiral orbit =? , where k is a positive constant. (i)

Find the force law. Given the differential equation of the orbit + =− .

(ii)Compute the effective one dimensional potential energy.

(iii)Find total energy of the system for which the motion is allowed. [CU 2018]
@A
[Hints. Using equation of orbit, find . Answer will be = 2 B + ;
7

Using D∇⃗ × F
D⃗ = 0,
DD⃗ find V(r) and then using H I A
, =H + , find H , = ; .
Total energy J = K L + H, .
For possible radial motion, J ≥ H, ]

28