2.

SOLAR CELLS
2.1 FUNCTION OF THE SOLAR CELL

Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic (PV) cells, are the fundamental building blocks of
solar energy systems. They are electronic devices that convert light energy directly into
electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect. This process is central to the operation of
solar power systems, enabling the harnessing of sunlight to generate electricity.
Understanding the function and working principles of solar cells is essential for optimizing
their performance and integration into various applications.

Photovoltaic Effect and Basic Operation

The photovoltaic effect, discovered by French physicist Edmond Becquerel in 1839, is the
underlying principle behind solar cells. It involves the generation of a voltage (or electric
current) in a material upon exposure to light. The photovoltaic effect can be described in
three main steps: absorption of light, generation and separation of charge carriers, and
extraction of these carriers to produce an electric current.

Figure 1: Function of solar cell

Absorption of Light: When light photons strike a solar cell, they can be absorbed by the
semiconductor material. This absorption process depends on the energy of the photons and
the bandgap of the semiconductor. The bandgap is the energy difference between the valence
band (where electrons are bound to atoms) and the conduction band (where electrons are free
to move). For silicon, a commonly used semiconductor in solar cells, the bandgap is about
1.1 electron volts (eV). Photons with energy greater than this bandgap can excite electrons
from the valence band to the conduction band, creating electron-hole pairs.

Generation and Separation of Charge Carriers: Upon absorption of photons, the excited
electrons in the conduction band leave behind holes in the valence band. These electron-hole
pairs are the charge carriers necessary for electrical conduction. In a typical solar cell, the
semiconductor is doped to create a p-n junction. The p-type region has an abundance of
holes, while the n-type region has an excess of electrons. At the p-n junction, an electric field
is established, which helps in the separation of the electron-hole pairs. The electric field
drives electrons toward the n-type region and holes toward the p-type region.
Extraction of Charge Carriers: Once separated, the electrons and holes need to be extracted
to an external circuit to generate electric current. Metal contacts are placed on the top and
bottom of the solar cell to collect the charge carriers. Electrons flow through the external
circuit from the n-type region to the p-type region, creating a flow of electric current. This
current can be used to power electrical devices or can be stored in batteries for later use.

The operation of a solar cell can be summarized by the following equation, which describes
the output current (III) of the cell:

where:

 Iph is the photocurrent generated by the absorption of light.

 I0 is the saturation current of the diode.

 q is the charge of an electron.

 V is the voltage across the solar cell.

 k is the Boltzmann constant.

 T is the absolute temperature.

Structure and Materials

The most commonly used material for solar cells is silicon, which exists in several forms:
monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and amorphous. The choice of silicon form affects the
efficiency and cost of the solar cell.

Monocrystalline Silicon: Monocrystalline solar cells are made from single-crystal silicon
and are known for their high efficiency, typically around 15-20%. The production process
involves growing a single crystal of silicon using the Czochralski method. These cells are
characterized by their uniform dark color and high purity, which contributes to their high
efficiency. However, the production process is complex and expensive.

Polycrystalline Silicon: Polycrystalline solar cells are made from silicon crystals that are
melted together. These cells are less efficient than monocrystalline cells, with efficiencies
ranging from 13-16%. The manufacturing process is simpler and less costly, making
polycrystalline cells more affordable. They are recognizable by their bluish hue and visible
grain boundaries.

Amorphous Silicon: Amorphous silicon cells are a type of thin-film solar cell made by
depositing a thin layer of silicon onto a substrate. They have lower efficiencies, typically
around 6-10%, but are cheaper to produce and flexible, allowing for a variety of applications.
They are particularly useful for applications where flexibility and lightweight are important,
such as in portable devices and building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV).
Working Principle and Efficiency

The working principle of a solar cell involves converting the energy of photons into electrical
energy. The efficiency of this conversion process is a critical parameter and depends on
several factors, including the material properties, the design of the cell, and the quality of the
light.

Bandgap and Absorption: The bandgap of the semiconductor material determines the range
of photon energies that can be absorbed. For silicon, the bandgap is 1.1 eV, which
corresponds to light in the near-infrared region. Photons with energy less than the bandgap
cannot excite electrons to the conduction band, and their energy is not harnessed. Photons
with energy greater than the bandgap can excite electrons, but the excess energy is lost as
heat. Thus, the bandgap is a trade-off between absorbing enough sunlight and minimizing
energy loss.

Quantum Efficiency: Quantum efficiency (QE) is a measure of how effectively a solar cell
converts absorbed photons into electron-hole pairs. It is defined as the ratio of the number of
charge carriers collected by the cell to the number of photons incident on the cell. QE can be
wavelength-dependent, as different wavelengths (colors) of light are absorbed with varying
efficiencies. High QE across a wide range of wavelengths indicates an efficient solar cell.

Fill Factor and Maximum Power Point: The fill factor (FF) is another important parameter
that affects the efficiency of a solar cell. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum power
output Pmax to the product of the open-circuit voltage Voc and the short-circuit current Isc:

The maximum power point (MPP) is the point on the current-voltage (I-V) curve of the solar
cell where the product of current and voltage is maximum. Operating the cell at this point
maximizes the power output. The efficiency (η\etaη) of the solar cell is given by:

where Pin is the incident light power.

Practical Considerations and Challenges

Several practical considerations and challenges impact the performance and deployment of
solar cells.

Temperature Effects: The performance of solar cells is temperature-dependent. As the

temperature increases, the open-circuit voltage decreases, leading to a reduction in efficiency.
Managing the thermal environment of solar cells is crucial for maintaining optimal
performance. This can involve the use of passive cooling techniques, such as heat sinks and
cooling fins, or active cooling methods, such as water or air cooling systems.

Light Management: Efficient light management is essential for maximizing the absorption
of sunlight. This includes anti-reflective coatings to reduce the reflection of light from the
surface of the cell, texturing of the cell surface to trap light, and the use of light-concentrating
techniques to focus more light onto the cell. Advanced designs, such as multi-junction solar
cells, use multiple layers of different materials with varying bandgaps to capture a broader
spectrum of light, enhancing overall efficiency.

Degradation and Longevity: Solar cells degrade over time due to environmental factors
such as exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light, temperature fluctuations, and mechanical stresses.
The degradation rate can vary depending on the materials and construction of the cell.
Manufacturers aim to produce cells with long lifetimes, typically warranting performance for
20-25 years. Encapsulation and protective coatings are used to shield the cells from
environmental damage.

Cost and Manufacturing: The cost of solar cells is a critical factor for widespread adoption.
Advances in manufacturing processes aim to reduce costs while maintaining or improving
efficiency. Innovations such as thin-film technologies and the use of alternative materials,
like perovskites, offer potential for cost-effective production. Economies of scale and
increased production capacities also contribute to lowering costs.

Future Trends and Developments

Research and development in the field of solar cells continue to focus on improving
efficiency, reducing costs, and expanding applications.

Next-Generation Materials: New materials, such as perovskites, organic photovoltaics

(OPVs), and quantum dots, are being explored for their potential to achieve high efficiencies
at lower costs. Perovskite solar cells, in particular, have shown remarkable progress, with
efficiencies exceeding 25% in laboratory settings. These materials offer the possibility of
flexible and lightweight solar cells with tunable properties.

Bifacial Solar Cells: Bifacial solar cells can capture light from both the front and back
surfaces, increasing the total energy output. They are particularly effective in installations
where reflected light from the ground or nearby surfaces can be harnessed. Bifacial designs
can improve the overall energy yield of solar power systems, especially in environments with
high albedo.

Integration with Energy Storage: Combining solar cells with energy storage systems, such
as batteries, enhances the reliability and utility of solar power. Energy storage allows for the
capture and use of solar energy even when the sun is not shining, addressing the intermittency
issue. Advances in battery technologies and integration strategies are critical for the
development of efficient and cost-effective solar energy systems.

Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV): BIPV involves integrating solar cells into

building materials, such as roof tiles, windows, and facades. This approach offers aesthetic
and functional benefits, allowing buildings to generate electricity while maintaining their
architectural integrity. BIPV can contribute to the development of net-zero energy buildings
and sustainable urban environments.

Smart Solar Systems: The integration of smart technologies, such as Internet of Things
(IoT) devices and advanced monitoring systems, can optimize the performance of solar
power installations. Real-time data on energy production, weather conditions, and system
health can be used to enhance efficiency, predict maintenance needs, and manage energy
distribution.

In conclusion, solar cells are pivotal in the transition to sustainable energy systems. Their
ability to convert sunlight into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect has profound
implications for reducing dependence on fossil fuels and mitigating climate change.
Advances in materials, design, and integration continue to drive improvements in efficiency,
cost, and applicability, positioning solar cells as a cornerstone of the future energy landscape.

2.2 TYPES OF SOLAR CELLS

Solar cells are the fundamental components in photovoltaic (PV) systems, converting light
energy directly into electrical energy. They come in various types, each with unique
characteristics, efficiency levels, and manufacturing processes. The primary types of solar
cells include monocrystalline, polycrystalline, thin-film modules, and CIGS modules.
Understanding these different types helps in selecting the right technology for specific
applications, optimizing performance, and managing costs effectively.

2.2.1 MONOCRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELLS

Monocrystalline solar cells are made from a single crystal structure, typically silicon. These
cells are known for their high efficiency and longevity, making them a popular choice for
residential and commercial solar installations.

Figure 2: Structure of monocrystalline solar cell

Manufacturing Process and Structure: The manufacturing process of monocrystalline solar

cells involves the Czochralski process, where a single crystal of silicon is grown from a seed
crystal in a molten silicon bath. This single crystal is then sliced into thin wafers to create the
solar cells. The single-crystal structure gives these cells a uniform appearance, usually a dark
blue or black color.

Working Principle: Monocrystalline solar cells operate based on the photovoltaic effect.
When sunlight hits the cell, photons are absorbed by the silicon, exciting electrons and
creating electron-hole pairs. The internal electric field at the p-n junction separates these
charge carriers, driving electrons toward the n-type layer and holes toward the p-type layer,
generating a flow of electric current.

Efficiency: Monocrystalline solar cells typically have efficiencies ranging from 15% to 20%,
with some advanced designs achieving up to 24%. Their high efficiency is due to the high
purity of silicon and the optimal arrangement of the crystal lattice, which reduces defects and
improves charge carrier mobility.

Advantages and Disadvantages: The primary advantage of monocrystalline solar cells is

their high efficiency, which allows for a smaller installation area for a given power output
compared to other types. They also have a longer lifespan, often exceeding 25 years.
However, the manufacturing process is more complex and expensive, leading to higher costs
per watt of electricity generated. Additionally, the production process generates significant
material waste.

2.2.2 POLYCRYSTALLINE SOLAR CELLS

Polycrystalline solar cells, also known as multicrystalline or polysilicon cells, are made from
silicon crystals that are melted together. These cells are a more cost-effective alternative to
monocrystalline cells, although they typically offer lower efficiency.

Figure 3: Structure of the polycrystalline silicon solar cell

Manufacturing Process and Structure: Polycrystalline cells are produced by melting

silicon fragments together and allowing them to solidify into a block, which is then cut into
wafers. The resulting structure contains many small crystals, giving the cells a characteristic
grainy, blue appearance. This process is simpler and less costly than the monocrystalline
process, resulting in lower production costs.

Working Principle: The working principle of polycrystalline solar cells is similar to that of
monocrystalline cells, relying on the photovoltaic effect. However, the presence of multiple
crystal boundaries can impede electron flow, leading to reduced efficiency.

Efficiency: Polycrystalline solar cells generally have efficiencies ranging from 13% to 16%.
The lower efficiency compared to monocrystalline cells is due to the crystal boundaries that
act as barriers to electron movement, increasing the recombination rate of electron-hole pairs.
Advantages and Disadvantages: The primary advantage of polycrystalline cells is their
lower production cost, making solar energy more affordable. They also have a simpler
manufacturing process with less material waste. However, their lower efficiency means that
more surface area is required to generate the same amount of electricity as monocrystalline
cells. This can be a disadvantage in space-constrained applications.

2.2.3 THIN-FILM MODULES

Thin-film solar cells represent a different approach to photovoltaic technology, using layers
of semiconductor materials only a few micrometers thick. These cells can be made from
various materials, including amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), and copper
indium gallium selenide (CIGS).

Figure 4: Structure of thin film solar cells

Manufacturing Process and Structure: Thin-film solar cells are manufactured by

depositing thin layers of photovoltaic material onto a substrate, which can be glass, plastic, or
metal. The deposition process can be done using techniques such as chemical vapor
deposition (CVD) or sputtering. The resulting cells are flexible and lightweight, which opens
up a range of new applications.

Working Principle: The working principle of thin-film solar cells is also based on the
photovoltaic effect. When sunlight strikes the thin semiconductor layer, photons excite
electrons, creating electron-hole pairs. These charge carriers are separated by the electric field
at the junction, generating a current. The thin nature of the semiconductor layer means that
less material is required, which can reduce costs. However, thin-film materials generally have
lower absorption coefficients, necessitating thicker layers or additional light-trapping
techniques to achieve comparable efficiencies.

Efficiency: The efficiency of thin-film solar cells varies depending on the material used.
Amorphous silicon cells typically have efficiencies around 6-10%, CdTe cells around 9-15%,
and CIGS cells can reach efficiencies of 10-20%. The lower efficiency of thin-film cells
compared to crystalline silicon cells is due to their less effective light absorption and higher
rates of recombination of electron-hole pairs.
Advantages and Disadvantages: Thin-film solar cells offer several advantages, including
flexibility, lightweight, and the ability to be manufactured using roll-to-roll processes, which
can lower production costs. They can be integrated into a variety of applications, such as
building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) and portable solar products. However, their lower
efficiency and potential issues with long-term stability and degradation can be disadvantages.
Moreover, some materials used in thin-film cells, like cadmium, pose environmental and
health risks.

2.2.4 CIGS MODULES

Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) modules are a type of thin-film solar cell known for
their relatively high efficiency and flexibility. CIGS cells have shown significant promise in
achieving higher efficiencies compared to other thin-film technologies.

Figure 5: CIGS solar cell structure

Manufacturing Process and Structure: CIGS cells are manufactured by depositing a thin
layer of CIGS semiconductor onto a substrate. The process involves co-evaporation or co-
sputtering of copper, indium, gallium, and selenium onto the substrate, followed by annealing
to form the CIGS compound. This thin layer is then covered with a transparent conductive
oxide (TCO) to form the top electrode.

Working Principle: The working principle of CIGS cells is based on the photovoltaic effect,
similar to other solar cell types. When sunlight hits the CIGS layer, it generates electron-hole
pairs. The built-in electric field at the junction separates these charge carriers, creating a flow
of current. The CIGS material has a direct bandgap, which means it can absorb sunlight more
efficiently, leading to higher efficiencies. The bandgap of CIGS can be tuned by adjusting the
relative concentrations of indium and gallium, allowing for optimization of the cell's
performance.

Efficiency: CIGS solar cells are among the most efficient thin-film technologies, with
efficiencies ranging from 10% to 20%. The higher efficiency is due to the excellent light
absorption properties of the CIGS material and its ability to form a high-quality junction with
minimal defects. Laboratory-scale CIGS cells have achieved efficiencies exceeding 23%,
although commercial modules typically have lower efficiencies.
Advantages and Disadvantages: The primary advantage of CIGS modules is their high
efficiency compared to other thin-film technologies. They also offer flexibility and
lightweight, making them suitable for a range of applications, including flexible solar panels
and BIPV. Additionally, the ability to tune the bandgap allows for optimization in various
lighting conditions. However, the manufacturing process for CIGS cells is more complex and
costly compared to other thin-film technologies. There are also concerns about the
availability and cost of indium and gallium, which could limit the scalability of CIGS
production.

2.3 COMPARISON TABLE

Monocrystalline Polycrystalline Thin-Film CIGS

Feature
Solar Cells Solar Cells Modules Modules

Copper
indium
Single crystal Multiple crystal Various (a-Si,
Material gallium
silicon silicon CdTe, CIGS)
selenide
(CIGS)

Uniform dark Varies (dark Dark brown

Appearance Grainy blue
blue or black brown/black) or black

6-20% 10-20% (up

15-20% (up to
Efficiency 13-16% (depends on to 23% in
24% in labs)
material) labs)

Low to Moderate to
Cost High Moderate
moderate high

Deposition
Complex Simpler (melting Co-
Manufacturing techniques
(Czochralski silicon evaporation
Process (CVD,
process) fragments) or sputtering
sputtering)

Material Usage High Moderate Low Low

Lifespan 25+ years 20-25 years 10-20 years 10-20 years

Temperature -0.4 to -0.5% per -0.4 to -0.5% per -0.2 to -0.3% -0.2 to -0.4%
Coefficient °C °C per °C per °C

Space Low to
High Moderate Moderate
Efficiency moderate
Flexibility Rigid Rigid Flexible Flexible

Weight Heavy Heavy Lightweight Lightweight

Limited to Limited to Versatile Versatile

Aesthetic
conventional conventional (BIPV, (BIPV,
Integration
panels panels flexible) flexible)

Moderate Moderate
Environmental High (silicon Varies (CdTe
(silicon (indium,
Impact extraction) has cadmium)
extraction) gallium)

Residential, Residential,
Typical Large scale, Flexible
commercial commercial
Applications portable, BIPV panels, BIPV
rooftops rooftops

Recombination
Low Moderate High (varies) Moderate
Rate

Light
High Moderate High (varies) High
Absorption

Fill Factor 0.7 to 0.8 0.6 to 0.75 0.5 to 0.75 0.6 to 0.75

Open-Circuit
0.6 to 0.7 V 0.5 to 0.6 V 0.4 to 0.7 V 0.5 to 0.7 V
Voltage (Voc)

Short-Circuit
High Moderate Varies High
Current (Isc)