FR.

CONCEICAO RODRIGUES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Department of Electronics & Computer Science (ECS)

THE SOLAR CELL

(a) Operating Principle of Solar Cell :-

The photo-voltaic cell or the solar cell operates on the principle of the photo-voltaic effect, is creation of voltage or electric
current in a material upon exposure to light and is a physical and chemical phenomenon. The photo-voltaic effect is closely
related to the photoelectric effect where light is absorbed, causing excitation of an electron or other charge carrier to a
higher-energy state. Photo-voltaic effect used when the excited charge carrier is still contained within the material. In either
case, an electric potential (or voltage) is produced by the separation of charges, and the light has to have a sufficient energy
to overcome the potential barrier for excitation.

(b) Construction & Structure of Solar Cell :-

Fig. 1 – Structure & Construction of Solar Cell

The photovoltaic cell is a semiconductor PN junction device. However, its construction is not the same as a normal junction
diode. It is formed by a combination of P-type semiconductor material with an N-type semiconductor. Usually, silicon and
selenium are used as the basic semiconductor material. However, gallium arsenide, cadmium sulphide are also majorly
used. Here, the above figure clearly represents that the top layer of the device i.e., P-type region is made very thin in
comparison to N-type region. The reason why we have constructed the two regions differently is that the region from where
the light ray is allowed to incident must be thin. So, that the incident radiation can easily penetrate to the depletion region
(PN junction). A layer of glass is placed at the top surface of the device in order to gather maximum incident radiation. Also,
metallic fingers are provided at the top surface of the structure. Here, we have used silver fingers. As they are good
conductors and absorb the released electrons easily in order to provide proper conduction. Now, the question arises why we
have placed the silver fingers at some distance with the other ? The answer is that if we place a layer of metal at the top
surface then it does not allow the penetration of radiation to the depletion region. So, it is placed in such a way that light
rays can easily reach the junction region. Also at the bottom, a metallic contact is placed which is generally nickel plating
that acts as negative contact for the whole structure.

Electronic Devices (ED) – ECC 302 for S.E. (Electronics & Computer Science) – Semester III
Module No. 2 – Special Semiconductor Devices (Unit No. 2.1 – The Solar Cell)
 FR. CONCEICAO RODRIGUES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Department of Electronics & Computer Science (ECS)

(c) Working / Operation of Solar Cell :-

Fig. 2 – Working / Operation of Solar Cell

When no (any) light energy is provided to the device then the device does not conduct. Only the intensity of radiation falling
at the surface allows a proportional current to flow through the device. When a light ray is permitted to incident at the top
surface of the structure then the glass placed gathers the light energy and permit it to reach the P-type region. As at the
time of construction we have discussed that the thin P-type region is fabricated in order to have easy light penetration
towards the junction region. We know that junction is depletion region composed of neutral atoms. Thus, when a light ray
incident at the junction then it produces electron-hole pairs. Due to the presence of depletion region an electric field exists.
Under the influence of the electric field, electrons move to the N-type side and holes drift towards the P-type side. In this
way, the movement of charge carriers generates an electric current through the device. However, it is to be noted here that
the material is a semiconductor. Hence, it does not permit easy flow of charge carriers. So, to have a sufficient amount of
current flow to take place metallic fingers are fabricated at the top surface. These metallic fingers are nothing but conducting
rods that easily absorbs the emitted electrons. This phenomenon gives rise to a potential difference. The generated EMF is
known as photo-voltage as the voltage is produced due to light. It is to be noted here that the energy of the incident
radiation (or photon energy) must be greater than the energy band gap between valence and conduction band. This is so
because in order to have proper conduction electron must be free to get excited to the conduction band. In this way, an
electric potential is generated by a photovoltaic cell without using external bias. It generates voltage nearly from 0.5 V to 0.6
V. If we want to increase the overall output through the device, then multiple photocells can be parallel connected.

Electronic Devices (ED) – ECC 302 for S.E. (Electronics & Computer Science) – Semester III
Module No. 2 – Special Semiconductor Devices (Unit No. 2.1 – The Solar Cell)
 FR. CONCEICAO RODRIGUES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Department of Electronics & Computer Science (ECS)

(d) V-I Characteristics of Solar Cell :-

Fig. 3 – Solar Cell V – I Characteristics in Forward & Reverse Bias

While sunlight falling on the cell the some photons of the light are absorbed by solar cell. Some of the absorbed photons will
have energy greater than the energy gap between valence band and conduction band in the semiconductor crystal. Hence,
one valence electron gets energy from one photon and becomes excited and jumps out from the bond and creates one
electron-hole pair. These electrons and holes of electron-hole pairs are called light-generated electrons and holes. The light-
generated electrons near the PN junction are migrated to N-type side of the junction due to electrostatic force of the field
across the junction. Similarly the light-generated holes created near the junction are migrated to p-type side of the junction
due to same electrostatic force. In this way a potential difference is established between two sides of the cell and if these
two sides are connected by an external circuit current will start flowing from positive to negative terminal of the solar cell.

(f) Symbol of Solar Cell :-

Fig. 4 – Symbolic Notation of Solar Cell

Electronic Devices (ED) – ECC 302 for S.E. (Electronics & Computer Science) – Semester III
Module No. 2 – Special Semiconductor Devices (Unit No. 2.1 – The Solar Cell)
 FR. CONCEICAO RODRIGUES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Department of Electronics & Computer Science (ECS)

(g) Important Electrical Parameters of Solar Cell :-

Fig. 3 – Solar Cell Output Voltage & Current

1. Short Circuit Current (ISC) :-

It is the maximum current that a solar cell can deliver without harming its own constriction. It is measured by short circuiting
the terminals of the cell at most optimized condition of the cell for producing maximum output. The term optimized condition
I used because for fixed exposed cell surface the rate of production of current in a solar cell also depends upon the intensity
of light and the angle at which the light falls on the cell. As the current production also depends upon the surface area of the
cell exposed to light, it is better to express maximum current density instead maximum current. Maximum current density or
short circuit current density rating is nothing but ratio of maximum or short circuit current to exposed surface area of the cell.

2. Open Circuit Voltage (VOC) :-

It is measured by measuring the voltage across the terminals of the cell when no load is connected to the cell. This voltage
depends upon the techniques of manufacturing and temperature but not fairly on the intensity of light and area of exposed
surface. Normally open circuit voltage of solar cell nearly equal to 0.5 to 0.6 volt. It is normally denoted by V oc.

3. Maximum Power Point (MPP) :-

The maximum electrical power one solar cell can deliver at its standard test condition. If we draw the V-I characteristics of a
solar cell maximum power will occur at the bend point of the characteristic curve. It is shown in the V-I characteristics of
solar cell by Pm the current at which maximum power occurs while current at maximum power point is shown in the V-I
characteristics of solar cell by Im. The voltage at which maximum power occurs; voltage at maximum power point (MPP) is
shown in the V-I characteristics of solar cell by Vm.

Electronic Devices (ED) – ECC 302 for S.E. (Electronics & Computer Science) – Semester III
Module No. 2 – Special Semiconductor Devices (Unit No. 2.1 – The Solar Cell)
 FR. CONCEICAO RODRIGUES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Department of Electronics & Computer Science (ECS)

(h) Operating Characteristics of Solar Cell :-

Fig. 4 – Operating Characteristics of Solar Cell

The operating characteristics of the solar cell represent the output voltage & output current variations when an external load
resistance (R) is connected across the output terminals & only when incident light falls on semiconductor device structure. It
can be analyzed under the following two main conditions :-

 When the externally connected load resistance is open-circuited (R = ∞) then there would be no current flowing
from the output terminals but the voltage under this condition is called as the open-circuited voltage (Voc)
 When the externally connected load resistance is short-circuited (R = 0) then there would be no voltage from the
output terminals but the current under this condition is called as the short-circuited current (Isc)

However in the presence of an externally connected load resistance (R) the maximum or peak output voltage is designated
as ‘Vm’ & the maximum or peak output current is designated as ‘I m’. From the operating characteristics to obtain the
maximum output power, the photo-voltaic cell or solar cell should be always operated in the knee region (also called as Q –
point) since along either axis, increase in the voltage will cause the current to decrease while any increase in the current will
cause the corresponding voltage to decrease. The only point where both current & voltage are maximum (V m & Im) is the
knee point which gives maximum output power (Pm).

Electronic Devices (ED) – ECC 302 for S.E. (Electronics & Computer Science) – Semester III
Module No. 2 – Special Semiconductor Devices (Unit No. 2.1 – The Solar Cell)
 FR. CONCEICAO RODRIGUES COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Department of Electronics & Computer Science (ECS)

(h) Fill Factor (FF) of Solar Cell :-

Fill factor (FF) is defined as the ratio of the product of the maximum possible output voltage & output current (Vm & Im) to the
product of the open-circuit voltage (Voc) & the short-circuit current (Isc) mathematically defined by :-

Vm  I m
FF 
Voc  I sc

Graphically, fill factor (FF) is measure of the ‘squareness’ of the solar cell and is also the area of the largest rectangle which
will fit in the I-V curve. A solar cell with a higher voltage has a larger possible fill factor (FF) since the ‘rounded’ portion of the
I-V curve takes up less area. The fill factor (FF) represents the amount of realizable power from the solar cell & typically
ranges from 0.5 to 0.8.

(i) Applications of Solar Cell :-

 Solar powered electronic gadgets (calculators, wrist-watches, fan, lamp, torch, toys, locks etc.)
 Street lighting (residential / civilian & industrial)
 Domestic lighting (solar cell panels on roof-tops for home lighting & electricity generation)
 Agriculture (water pumps powered by solar cell panels & other agricultural implements / machinery)
 Satellite communication
 Electric cars & vehicles
 Commercial solar power generation

https://www.electrical4u.com/characteristics-and-parameters-of-a-solar-cell/
https://www.electrical4u.com/working-principle-of-photovoltaic-cell-or-solar-cell/
https://www.electrical4u.com/solar-cell/
https://electronicsdesk.com/photovoltaic-cells.html
https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/io/io_4.html
http://ecetutorials.com/power-plant/solar-cell-parameters/

Electronic Devices (ED) – ECC 302 for S.E. (Electronics & Computer Science) – Semester III
Module No. 2 – Special Semiconductor Devices (Unit No. 2.1 – The Solar Cell)