Instrumentation Bascis

Sensor
Classification

Digital Analog
Analog signal Loop
 Pressure sensor

Level sensor

Temperature sensor

Flow sensor
Pressure sensors
 Sensing Principles

Sensing Elements Since pressure is defined as the force per unit area, the
most direct way of measuring pressure is to isolate an area on an elastic
mechanical element for the force to act on. The deformation of the sensing
element produces displacements and strains that can be precisely sensed to
give a calibrated measurement of the pressure. This forms the basis for
essentially all commercially available pressure sensors today.

Mechanical Electrical
transmitter
element element
• a Cshaped Bourdon tube (A)
• a helical Bourdon tube (B)
• flat diaphragm (C)
• a convoluted diaphragm (D)
• a capsule (E)
• set of bellows (F)
 Strain Gauge
Strain gauge sensing uses a metal wire or semiconductor chip to measure changes in
pressure. A change in pressure causes a change in resistance as the metal is
deformed.

Advantages
- Wide range, 7.5kPa to 1400 Mpa
- Inaccuracy of 0.1%
- Small in size
- Stable devices with fast response
- Most have no moving parts
- Good over-range capability

Disadvantages
- Unstable due to bonding material
- Temperature sensitive
- Thermoelastic strain causes hysteresis
 Vibrating wire sensor functioning principle
This type of sensor consists of an electronic oscillator circuit which causes a wire to Advantages
vibrate at its natural frequency when under tension. The principle is similar to that - Good accuracy and repeatability
of a guitar string. The vibrating wire is located in a diaphragm. As the pressure - Stable
changes on the diaphragm so does the tension on the wire which affects the - Low hysteresis
frequency that the wire vibrates or resonates at. These frequency changes are a - high resolution
direct consequence of pressure changes and as such are detected and shown as - Absolute, gauge or differential
pressure. measurement
The frequency can be sensed as digital pulses from a electromagnetic pickup or Disadvantages
sensing coil. An electronic transmitter would then convert this into an electrical - Temperature sensitive
signal suitable for transmission - Affected by shock and vibration
- Non linear
- Physically large
 Piezoelectric
When pressure is applied to crystals, they are elastically deformed. Piezoelectric
pressure sensing involves the measurement of such deformation. When a crystal is
deformed, an electric charge is generated for only a few seconds. The electrical
signal is proportional to the applied force.
•Piezoelectric Transducer Definition: A piezoelectric transducer is a
device that converts physical pressures like force or acceleration into an
electric charge.
•Working Principle: The piezoelectric effect allows these transducers to
generate voltage when mechanical stress is applied, which is then used
to measure that stress.
•Material Properties: Piezoelectric materials like quartz crystal are
essential for the transducer’s function, responding uniquely to
mechanical stresses.
•Application Diversity: Piezoelectric transducers are used in numerous
fields including medical diagnostics, automotive safety, and consumer
electronics.
•Reversibility and Sensitivity: This technology not only detects forces
but can also apply forces when voltage is introduced, demonstrating
high sensitivity and versatility.
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer

The LVDT operates on the inductance ratio between the coils.

Disadvantages
- Mechanical wear
- Vibration
 Capacitance
Capacitive pressure measurement involves sensing the change in
capacitance that results from the movement of a diaphragm. The
sensor is energized electrically with a high frequency oscillator. As
the diaphragm is deflected due to pressure changes, the relative
capacitance is measured by a bridge circuit
Level Measurement
 Continuous Measurement

The units of level are generally meters (m). However, there are numerous ways to
measure level that require different technologies and various units of measurement.
Such means may be:

- Ultrasonic, transit time

- Pulse echo
- Pulse radar
- Pressure, hydrostatic
- Weight, strain gauge
- Conductivity
- Capacitive
 Hydrostatic Pressure

Some of the different types of level measurement with pressure are:

- Static pressure
- Differential pressure
- Bubble tube method
- Diaphragm Box
- Weighing
Pressure of a fluid
column
A vertical column of
fluid exerts a pressure
due to the column’s
weight. The relationship
between column height
and fluid pressure at the
bottom of the column is
constant for any
particular fluid (density)
regardless of vessel
width or shape.
This principle makes it
possible to infer the
height of liquid in a
vessel by measuring the
pressure generated at
the bottom:
 Differential Pressure transmitter
When the surface pressure on the liquid is greater (as may be the case of a pressurized tank) or
different to the atmospheric pressure, then a differential pressure sensor is required. This is because
the total pressure will be greater than the head of
liquid pressure. With the differential pressure sensor, the pressure on the surface of the liquid will
be subtracted from the total pressure, resulting in a measurement of the pressure due to the height
of the liquid
 Ultrasonic Measurement

Advantages
Disadvantages
- Non contact with product
- Product must give a good reflection and not absorb sound
- Suitable for wide range of liquids and bulk products
- Product must have a good distinct layer of measurement and
- Reliable performance in difficult service
not be obscured
- No moving parts
by foam or bubbling.
- Measurement without physical contact
- Not suitable for higher pressures or in a vacuum
- Unaffected by density, moisture content or
- Special cable is required between the transducer and
conductivity
electronics
- Accuracy of 0.25% with temperature compensation
- The temperature is limited to 170oC
and self-calibration
 Radar Measurement
Radar gauges differ from ultrasonic in that they use microwaves instead of sound waves. Like ultrasonic devices they
measure from the top of the vessel to determine the product level
Advantages
- Used on difficult ‘hard-to-
handle’ applications
- High accuracy
- Non-contact
- Measure level through plastic
tanks
- Monitor contents of boxes or
other multi-media material
- Detect obstructions in chutes or
presses
Disadvantages
- Sensitive to build-up on sensor
face
- Very expensive, A$6-15k,
depending on accuracy
Temperature Measurement
• Thermocouples
• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD’s)
• Thermistors
The relationship between millivolts and
temperature is not linear. In microprocessor
based equipment, the conversion is done based on
the data stored in the device.
Base Metal Thermocouples
Types C, B, E, J, N, K, R, T, and S type are common types of thermocouples and have base metals of iron,
copper, nickel, platinum, rhodium, and chromel. A thermocouple requires two metals to be joined to form a
junction with each junction having a different temperature.

Isothermal Block:
 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD's)

Basis of Operation
RTD’s are built from selected metals (typically Platinum), which change resistance with temperature change. The
transducer is the temperature sensitive resistor itself, with the sensor being a combination of the transducer and
electronics that measure the resistance of the device.

There are two basic types of RTD's:

- PT100
- PT1000
The effective range of RTD’s depends principally on the type of wire used as the active element.
• A Platinum RTD may have a range from -100 oC to 650 oC,
• whereas a Nickel RTD typically ranges from -180 oC to 300 oC.
Flow Measurement
Differential Pressure Flowmeters
Magnetic Flowmeters
The Coriolis Meter