(ELECTRICAL) MEASUREMENT & INSTRUMENTA

CONTACT
c/o:
Address: Department of Electrical Engineering
KNUST, Kumasi, Ghana
E-mail: dopoku.coe@knust.edu.gh
Phone: 0553604143
Office: Opposite COE Department (Temp)

Taught By:
Daniel Opoku (Ph.D.)

Semester 2, 2016/2017
 Sensors
• Resistance change in stretched/
✤ Sensing employ various physical
principle in their operation. strained wires (strain gauges),

✤ These physical principles include: • Properties of piezoresistive

materials,
• Capacitance change,
• Light transmission (both along
• Resistance change, an air path and along a fiber-
optic cable),
• Magnetic phenomena (inductance,
reluctance, and eddy currents), • Properties of ultrasound,
• Hall effect, • Transmission of radiation,
• Properties of piezoelectric
• Properties of micromachined
materials,
structures (microsensors).
 Sensors
[Capacitive sensors]

✤ Capacitive sensors consist of two parallel metal plates with separated by

a dielectric material/air.

✤ The capacitance C is given by:

✤ Two common types based on the distance between the plates:

Variable distance and Fixed Distance
 Sensors
[Capacitive sensors]

✤ Variable Distance: The distance between the plates is

variable.

• Primarily displacement sensors: Motion of a

variable plate relative to a fixed plate.

• Motion to be measured can be applied to the

moveable capacitor plate.

• Capacitive displacement sensors commonly form

part of instruments measuring pressure, sound, or
acceleration.
 Sensors
[Capacitive sensors]

✤ Fixed Distance: Variation in capacitance is achieved

by changing the dielectric constant of the material
between the plates.

• E.g. For Humidity sensor by measuring the

moisture content of the air. The Dielectric medium
is air.

• As a liquid level sensor: The dielectric is partly air

and partly liquid according to the level of the liquid
that the device is inserted in.
 Sensors
[Resistive Sensors]

✤ Resistive sensors rely on variation of the resistance of

a material when the measured variable is applied to it.

✤ Commonly used in temperature measurement

• Resistance Thermometers or Thermistors.

✤ Also used in displacement measurement using strain

gauges or piezoresistive sensors.

✤ Besides, some moisture meters work on the resistance-

variation principle.
 Sensors
[Magnetic Sensors]

✤ Magnetic sensors utilize the magnetic phenomena of

inductance, reluctance, and eddy currents to indicate
the value of the measured quantity, which is usually
some form of displacement.

• Inductive sensors translate movement into a change

in the mutual inductance between magnetically
coupled parts.

• E.g. The inductive displacement transducer.

 Sensors
[Magnetic Sensors]

✤ The inductive displacement transducer:

• The single winding on the central limb of an “E”-shaped ferromagnetic body is excited with an alternating
voltage.

• The displacement to be measured is applied to a ferromagnetic plate in close proximity to the “E” piece.

• Movements of the plate alter the flux paths and hence cause a change in the current flowing in the
winding.

• By Ohm’s law, the current flowing in the winding is given by

 Sensors
[Magnetic Sensors]

✤ The variable reluctance sensors: a coil is wound on a permanent magnet rather than on an iron core

✤ Commonly to measure rotational velocities.

✤ A typical instrument in which a ferromagnetic gearwheel is placed next to the sensor.

• The tip of each tooth on the gearwheel moves toward and away from the pick-up unit,

• The changing magnetic flux in the pickup coil causes a voltage to be induced in the coil whose magnitude
is proportional to the rate of change of flux.

• Resulting in a sequence of positive and negative pulses whose frequency is proportional to the rotational
velocity of the gearwheel
 Sensors
[Magnetic Sensors]

✤ Eddy current sensors: consist of a probe containing a coil that is excited at a high frequency typically 1 MHz

✤ Used to measure the displacement of the probe relative to a moving metal target.

✤ Because of the high frequency of excitation, eddy currents are induced only in the surface of the target, and the current
magnitude reduces to almost zero a short distance inside the target.

✤ This allows the sensor to work with very thin targets, such as the steel diaphragm of a pressure sensor.

✤ The eddy currents alter the inductance of the probe coil, and this change can be translated into a d.c. voltage output that
is proportional to the distance between the probe and the target.

✤ Measurement resolution as high as 0.1 micrometer can be achieved. The sensor can also work with a nonconductive
target if a piece of aluminum tape is fastened to it.
 Sensors
[Hall-Effect Sensors]

✤ Hall-effect sensor is a device used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic field.

✤ It consists of a conductor carrying a current that is aligned orthogonally with the magnetic
field.

✤ This produces a transverse voltage difference across the device that is directly proportional to
the magnetic field strength.

✤ Conductor usually made from a Semiconductor materials for larger voltage production.

✤ Commonly used as proximity sensors, computer keyboard pushbuttons,

 Sensors
[Piezoelectric Transducers/Sensors]

✤ Piezoelectric transducers are made from piezoelectric materials

• Have an asymmetrical lattice of molecules that distorts when

a mechanical force is applied to it. Distortion causes a
reorientation of electric charges within the material

• Resulting in a relative displacement of positive and negative

charges.

• Induces surface charges on the material of opposite polarity

between the two sides

• Surface charges can be measured as an output voltage

 Sensors
[Piezoelectric Transducers/Sensors]

✤ For a rectangular block of material, the induced voltage is given by

✤ The Polarity of the induced voltage depends whether the device is

compressed or stretched.

✤ The input impedance of the instrument must be very high, particularly

where static or slowly varying displacements are being measured

✤ Materials exhibiting piezoelectric behavior include natural ones such

as quartz, synthetic ones such as lithium sulphate, and ferroelectric
ceramics such as barium titanate.
 Sensors
[Piezoelectric Transducers/Sensors]

✤ The piezoelectric constant varies widely between

different materials. Typical values of k are 2.3 for
quartz and 140 for barium titanate.

✤ Applying a force of 1 g applied to a crystal of area 100

mm and a thickness of 1 mm gives an output of 23 mV
2

for quartz and 1.4 mV for barium titanate.

 Sensors
[Piezoelectric Transducers/Sensors]

✤ Piezoelectric transducers produce an output voltage when a force is applied

to them.

• In Reverse Mode: A voltage applied to them produces an output force.

• They are used frequently as ultrasonic transmitters and receivers:

sinusoidal amplitude variations in the ultrasound wave received are
translated into sinusoidal changes in the amplitude of the force applied to
the piezoelectric transducer.

• They are also used as displacement transducers, particularly as part of

devices measuring acceleration, force, and pressure: translational
movement in a displacement transducer is caused by mechanical means to
apply a force to the piezoelectric transducer
 Sensors
[Piezoelectric Transducers/Sensors]

✤ Certain polymeric films such as polyvinylidine also exhibit piezoelectric properties.

• higher voltage output than most crystals

• Useful in many applications where displacement needs to be translated into voltage.

• They have very limited mechanical strength and are unsuitable for applications
where resonance might be generated in the material.

✤ Piezoelectric principle is invertible, and therefore distortion in a piezoelectric material

can be caused by applying a voltage to it.

• Commonly in ultrasonic transmitters,

• Application of a sinusoidal voltage at a frequency in the ultrasound range

• Causes sinusoidal variations in the thickness of the material and results in a sound
wave being emitted at the chosen frequency.
 Sensors
[Strain Gauges/Sensors]

✤ Strain gauges: Devices that experience a change in resistance when they are
stretched or strained.

• Able to detect very small displacements, usually in the range of 0-50 mm,

• Typically used as part of other transducers,

• E.g diaphragm pressure sensors that convert pressure changes into small
displacements of the diaphragm.
 Sensors
[Strain Gauges/Sensors]

✤ The traditional type of strain gauge consists of a length of metal resistance wire formed into a zigzag
pattern and mounted onto a flexible backing sheet

• The wire is nominally of circular cross section.

• Strain distorts the shape of the cross section (Area) of the resistance wire.

• Hence Consequential change in resistance.

• The input–output relationship expressed by the gauge factor: change in resistance (R) per a given
value of strain (S), that is, gauge factor = dR/dS.
 Sensors
[Strain Gauges/Sensors]

✤ In recent years: metal-foil types and semiconductor types are common.

✤ Metal-foil types are very similar to metal- wire types except that the active element consists of a piece of metal foil
cut into a zigzag pattern.

✤ Cutting a foil into the required shape is much easier than forming a piece of resistance wire into the required shape

• Which reduces manufacturing cost

✤ Material in metal strain gauge manufacture is a copper–nickel–manganese alloy

• Trade name is “Advance.”

 Sensors
[Strain Gauges/Sensors]

✤ Semiconductor types have piezoresistive elements

• Have superior gauge factor (up to 100 times better) than Metal but are more expensive.

• ave a relatively high temperature coefficient.

✤ Strain gauges are bonded to the object whose displacement is to be measured.

• Bonding presents difficulty, particularly for semiconductor types.

• Resistance of the gauge is usually measured by a d.c. bridge circuit, and the
displacement is inferred from the bridge output measured.

• Maximum current in the region of 5 to 50 mA depending on the type.

• Thus, maximum required voltage limited ,thus resistance change in a strain gauge is
typically small,

• The bridge output voltage is also small and amplification has to be carried out.

• This adds to the cost of using strain gauges.

 Sensors
[Piezoresistive Sensors]

✤ Piezoresistive materials: Resistance varies greatly when the

sensor is compressed or stretched.

✤ A piezoresistive sensor is made from semiconductor material

in which a p-type region has been diffused into an n-type base.

• Used as strain gauge, where it produces a significantly

higher gauge factor than that given by metal wire or foil
gauges.

✦ Also, measurement uncertainty can be reduced.

• It is also used in semiconductor-diaphragm pressure sensors

and in semiconductor accelerometers.
 Sensors
[Piezoresistive Sensors]

✤ Piezoresistive sensor is sometimes used to describe all types

of strain gauges.

• Incorrect as only about 10% of the output from a metal

strain gauge is generated by piezoresistive effects, with the
remainder arising out of the dimensional cross-sectional
change in the wire or foil.

• Proper piezoelectric strain gauges (a.k.a semiconductor

strain gauges), produce most (about 90%) of their output
through piezoresistive effects,

✦ Only a small proportion of the output is due to

dimensional changes in the sensor.
 Sensors
[Optical Sensors]

✤ Optical sensors are based on the transmission of light between a light source and
a light detector.

✤ The transmitted light can travel along either an air path or a fiber-optic cable.

• Immunity to electromagnetically induced noise and

• Greater safety than electrical sensors when used in hazardous environments.

 Sensors
[Optical Sensors: Air Path]

✤ Air path optical sensors are commonly to measure:

• proximity, translational motion, rotational motion, and gas concentration.

✤ Different Types exist

✤ Light sources: tungsten-filament lamps, laser diodes, and light-emitting

diodes (LEDs).

• Light from tungsten lamps (usually visible light), thus prone to

interference from the sun and other sources.

• Hence, infrared LEDs or infrared laser diodes are usually preferred.

• These emit light in a narrow frequency band in the infrared region and are
not affected by sunlight.
 Sensors
[Optical Sensors: Air Path]

✤ Air path optical sensors are commonly to measure:

• proximity, translational motion, rotational motion, and gas concentration.

✤ Different Types exist

✤ Light sources: tungsten-filament lamps, laser diodes, and light-emitting diodes

(LEDs).

• Light from tungsten lamps (usually visible light), thus prone to interference from the
sun and other sources.

• Hence, infrared LEDs or infrared laser diodes are usually preferred.

• These emit light in a narrow frequency band in the infrared region and are not
affected by sunlight.

✤ Light Detectors: photoconductors (photoresistors), photovoltaic devices (photocells),

phototransistors, and photodiodes.
 Sensors
[Optical Sensors: Air Path]

✤ Air path optical sensors are commonly to measure:

• proximity, translational motion, rotational motion, and gas concentration.

✤ Different Types exist

✤ Light sources: tungsten-filament lamps, laser diodes, and light-emitting diodes

(LEDs).

• Light from tungsten lamps (usually visible light), thus prone to interference from the
sun and other sources.

• Hence, infrared LEDs or infrared laser diodes are usually preferred.

• These emit light in a narrow frequency band in the infrared region and are not
affected by sunlight.

✤ Light Detectors: photoconductors (photoresistors), photovoltaic devices (photocells),

phototransistors, and photodiodes.
 Sensors
[Optical Sensors: Air Path]

✤ Photoconductive devices (a.k.a. photoresistors): Convert changes in incident light

into changes in resistance.

• Resistance reducing according to the intensity of light.

• Made from materials such as cadmium sulfide, lead sulfide, and indium
antimonide.

✤ Photovoltaic devices(often called photocells or solar cells when in array): Generate

an output voltage whose magnitude is a function of the magnitude of the incident
light

• Made from various types of semiconductor material.

✤ Photodiodes are devices where the output current is a function of the amount of
incident light.

• Made from various types of semiconductor material.

 Sensors
[Optical Sensors: Air Path]

✤ A phototransistor is effectively a standard bipolar transistor

with a transparent case that allows light to reach its base-
collector junction.

• Output in the form of an electrical current and could be

regarded as a photodiode with an internal gain.

• More sensitive to light than a photodiode, particularly in the

infrared region,

• Has a slower response time.

• Ideal partner for infrared LED and laser diode light sources.
 Sensors
[Optical Sensors: Fiber Optic]

✤ Transmission medium between a source and a detector fiber-optic cable.

• Fiber-optic cables made from plastic fibers, glass fibers, or both
• Only glass fibers cables not common as these are very fragile.
✤ Plastic fibers cables advantageous for sensor applications
• Are Inexpensive
• Relatively large diameter of 0.5 1.0 mm makes connection to the transmitter and receiver
easy.
• Cannot be used in hostile environments.
✤ The cost of fiber-optic cable itself is insignificant for sensing applications, as the Total cost
of the sensor is dominated by the cost of the transmitter and receiver.
• Characteristically have long life, good accuracy, their simplicity, low cost, small size,
high reliability, and capability of working in many kinds of hostile environments.
• Design difficulty is maximizing the proportion of light entering the cable.
✤ Two major classes : intrinsic (fiber-optic cable itself is sensor) and extrinsic (fiber optic cable
only transmits).
 Sensors
[Optical Sensors: Fiber Optic]

✤ In intrinsic sensors: the physical quantity being measured

causes some measurable change in the characteristics of the
light transmitted by the cable.

• The modulated light parameters include: intensity, phase,

polarization, wavelength, transit time.

✤ Extrinsic sensors: To transmit modulated light from a

conventional sensor such as a resistance thermometer.

• Have ability to reach places that are otherwise inaccessible.

E.g. inside of a jet engines of aircraft, internal temperature
of electrical transformers.
 Sensors
[Ultrasonic Transducers/Sensors]

✤ Ultrasound is a band of frequencies in the range above 20 kHz, that is, above the sonic
range that humans can usually hear.

• Used for measuring fluid flow rates, liquid levels, and translational displacements.

• Consists of one device that transmits an ultrasound wave and another device that
receives the wave.

• Change variables include: time-of-flight, phase, frequency.

✤ Common example is a piezoelectric crystal contained in a casing.

• Can operate interchangeably as either a

transmitter or a receiver.

• Operating frequencies that vary between 20

kHz and
15 MHz
✤ NB: There are also capacitive ultrasonic Sensors
with frequency range of about 30 kHz and 3 MHz
 Sensors
[Ultrasonic Transducers/Sensors]

✤ Transmission Speed: Varies according to the Medium of transmission.

• Through air, the speed of ultrasound is affected by environmental factors such as

temperature, humidity, and air turbulence.

• Temperature: Has the largest effect. V= 331:6 þ 0:6T m/s. T is the temperature in deg C.
Thus, a change of 20 degC from 0 to 20 C, the velocity changes from 331.6 to 343.6 m/s.

• Humidity changes have a much smaller effect on speed.

• Changes in air pressure itself have a negligible effect on the velocity of ultrasound.

• Air turbulence normally has no effect. However, if turbulence involves currents of air at
different temperatures, then random changes in ultrasound velocity occur.
 Sensors
[Ultrasonic Transducers/Sensors]

✤ Transmission Speed: Varies according to the Medium of transmission.

• Through air, the speed of ultrasound is affected by environmental factors such as

temperature, humidity, and air turbulence.

• Temperature: Has the largest effect. V= 331:6 þ 0:6T m/s. T is the temperature in deg C.
Thus, a change of 20 degC from 0 to 20 C, the velocity changes from 331.6 to 343.6 m/s.

• Humidity changes have a much smaller effect on speed.

• Changes in air pressure itself have a negligible effect on the velocity of ultrasound.

• Air turbulence normally has no effect. However, if turbulence involves currents of air at
different temperatures, then random changes in ultrasound velocity occur.
 Sensors
[Ultrasonic Transducers/Sensors]