3. Development is multidirectional.

In
Introduction other words, the increase ability in one
area may lead to a decreased ability in
Human development studies originally the other for example, an adolescent
focused on the development of children may become more self regulated but
from preschool. But later the research was may become less creative.
extended to development during conception 4. Development is plastic. It denotes the
to development during adulthood. Now capacity of the human brain to
human development explains the changes compensate for the loss. For example,
that take place throughout the life span of an people with visual impairment develop
individual, spanning from conception to their other senses to compensate for
death. But still the focus of human their loss of vision. Similarly,
development is child development. As intervention can help improving the
children grow they display certain development or behaviour in a human
characteristics. It not only includes physical being.
growth but also cognitive, social and 5. Development is influenced by
emotional development. contextual and socio-cultural influences.
Every human being develops as an
The development of humans is sequential.
interaction between his heredity and
According to stage theorists one cannot skip
environmental factors.
any stage of development. Every stage is
6. Development is multidisciplinary. Since
important for the various aspects of human
human development cannot be perfectly
development. Many stage theorists such as
explained by only one discipline other
Freud, Piaget and Erikson have contributed
disciplines are not included for a holistic
a lot in the study of human development.
view.
Freud’s psychosexual theory emphasized
the importance of psychological A major portion of the theories in human
development while Piaget’s theory development explain the changes that occur
explained about the cognitive development during childhood, since it’s the most critical
in a human being. Erikson’s psychosocial period of development. Learning and
theory spoke about personality education becomes effective if one has the
development of an individual. knowledge about child development. To
understand the changes during
Human development looks at the holistic
developmental stages knowledge about
development of a human being, Paul Baltes
developmental norms are very crucial.
articulated a set of principles to understand
the nature of human development. The Developmental norms represent the typical
principles are as follows: performance expected from a child at a
particular age. Only when teachers are
1. Development is life long as it
aware of what is to be expected normally
encompasses all the changes from
from a child will it be possible to set off
conception to death.
alarms when anything below or above
2. Development is multi dimensional as
normal is seen. Thus early intervention
changes occur not only in one area but
becomes possible when any anomaly or
many areas. Development is the product
delays are detected at this age.
of interaction between physical, socio-
emotional, and cognitive areas. Developmental stages and principles

1
1.3.1 Meaning of development and growth They need to feel this security in order to
The best way to explain the differences that properly develop both physically and
exists in behaviour and abilities in humans emotionally. They tend to trust others if their
between different ages is through needs are met or else they tend to develop a
development. Development implies overall feeling of mistrust towards others.
change in shape, form or structure resulting
in improved working/functioning. Changes Babyhood extends from the end of two
in the quality or character reflect weeks to two years. It is the period when
development. There are two major views babies try to explore the physical world
that describe development. One that views through their senses and motor movements.
development as continuous, in which The foundation for social skills, emotional
theorists believe that change, occurs expression happens at this stage through the
gradually over time. For example changes in interactions between the child and the
height. The other view views development significant others. Language development at
as discontinuous, in which theorists believe the end of this stage is noticeable.
new ways of responding to the world,
emerges at particular time periods. Early Childhood starts from age 2 to age 6.
Theories that accept the discontinuous The growth during childhood proceeds at a
perspective include stage as a very slow rate. The speech develops at a rapid
important developmental concept. Stages rate. There is also a considerable amount of
are qualitative change in thinking, feeling improvement seen in comprehension.
and behaving that characterize particular Children develop morality by constraint.
time periods of development. Stage theories They learn through punishment and
assume that development is universal and reinforcements. Happiness during this stage
sudden. It also assumes that children not depends on the conducive environment at
only undergo rapid changes as they go from home.
one stage to another, but also plateaus
Late childhood starts around six years of age
during which there is no change.
and ends by the child attain puberty that is
Growth refers to changes in size and length.
by thirteen years of age. Skills develop in
Changes in the quantitative aspects come
four major areas that is self-help skills,
into the domain of growth. Growth does not
school skills and play skills. The relationship
continue throughout life. It stops when
with immediate family members may
maturity has been attained.
deteriorate. They tend to develop better
Growth and development are interlinked.
relationships with peers. Increase in learning
Development encompasses growth.
opportunities and intelligence leads to better
1.3.2 Developmental stages understanding of concepts. Lot of attention
1. Infancy is the shortest stage of life that is given to physical appearance. Belonging
lasts from birth to two weeks. Once the child to a particular peer group is of utmost
is born he is expected to adjust to the four importance at this stage.
major changes. They are changes in the
Adolescence begins once the child attains
temperature changes, sucking and
puberty by the age of thirteen and ends by
swallowing, breathing and elimination.The
the age of eighteen. It is called as the
infants depend on their parents to meet their
transitional period. An adolescent is
basic needs. Whenever they are hungry or
expected to make mature decisions, failing
feel uncomfortable they need to be attended.
which can lead to self rejection. This may

2
 further affect the personal and social With respect to emotional behaviour infants
adjustments .During this age an adolescent approach strange and unusual objects with
faces peer pressure and is influenced by some sort of general fear response.
peers to a large extent.
Later, their fears become more specific and
Adulthood is the longest period of the life elicit different kinds of behavior, such as,
span. It is divided into three periods. Early crying, turning away and hiding etc.
adulthood extends from eighteen to 40
years. It’s the period where one is expected 3. Different body systems grow at different
to take up many new roles including the role rates i.e. respiratory system, reproduction
of a spouse and parent. The career system, nervous system.The patterns of
responsibility is of utmost importance. growth for body size, the nervous system,
Middle adulthood extends from 40 to 60 and sexual maturation are quite different.
years wherein lot of time is spent in the All system should be coordinated to
work field. Also family responsibilities are function normally.
taken care of. Late adulthood extends from
approximately sixty years to death. Here 4. Development is a product of contribution
recreational activities play an important of heredity and environment.

role. The feeling of being able to contribute • The children carry with them several
to the society is also important which leads physiological and psychological
to satisfaction. peculiarities that are present in the parents.
In fact it is the heredity that determines
1.3.3 Principles of development structure, complexion, structure of hair,
height. Facial features nasal index etc. of the
1. Development follows a direction and child. Thus different types of the genes help
pattern in the formation of a body.

● Cephalocaudal-Development happens from • Environment is nothing but the sum total

head to toe. According to this principle, a of the surroundings in which an individual
child will gain physical control of their head has to live. Psychologically an individual’s
first. After this, physical control will move environment is related to all those stimuli
downward to the arms and lastly to the legs. which he faces from the moment of
● Proximodistal-According to this principle fertilization till death.
development happens from centre to
extremities. With this principle, the trunk of 5. There is a wide individual difference in
the body grows before the extremities of the the growth pattern.
arms and legs. Development of the ability to
use various parts of the body also follows the ó It helps the teacher to know the principle
proximodistal principle. For instance, of individual differences and arrange the
effective use of the arms precedes the ability educational experience accordingly.
to use the hands.
6. Development is cumulative
2. Development proceeds from general to
ó Development of one depends on the other.
specific responses-gross to fine motor For
Experience helps build on.
example, the fetus moves its whole body but
is incapable of making specific responses.
7. Development is predictable

3
 ó The stages in development are predictable. Adults have the following development
Infancy-adolescence- adulthood- late tasks right from selecting a mate to learning
adulthood and the changes are also almost to live with a marriage partner, starting a
universal. family, rearing children ,managing a home
etc.
8. Development has a critical period. For
example some skills or areas of development Adults have to fulfill the developmental
happen within a certain age limit. tasks to be successful in life. During this
stage the developmental tasks are related to
​ ó Language acquisition: Native speaker up family relationships, parenting and work
to age 5, proficiency up to puberty environment. To achieve mastery of
​ ó Cognitive skills: Birth up to age 8-10 developmental tasks there are certain factors
Locus of Control: Puberty to that have to be considered.
​ ó Height/health: Up to age 4-6
1.4 Factors influencing natural 1. Health: The adults are at the peak of
development of adults 14.1 Meaning of physical health during early adulthood. Soif
Adulthood adults need to take care of their health.
The word adult is derived from the latin Health hazards affects work life and family
verb “adultus” which means “grown to full life. Good diet and exercise is important
size and strength” or ‘Matured”. Adulthood during this stage to sustain good health.
is a stage where the physical development of Only when the adults are healthy will they
a human being is complete. They are be able to concentrate on the other areas of
expected to show maturity in their development.
behaviour. The body stops growing but 2. Good interpersonal relationships: is one of
continues to show changes. Once a person the important factors in adulthood. As there
becomes 20, he is called as an adult whether are many new roles as a partner, parent to be
the adult behavior expected is displayed or fulfilled. Relationship flourish if adults have
not. good interpersonal relationships with their
14.2 Factors influencing development family members and peers. This leads to
As an adult one is expected to carry out achieving the developmental tasks expected
many responsibilities well. According to at the adult stage. When adults have a good
David Havinghurst there are certain home environment it helps in their
developmental tasks expected at every stage psychological growth.
of development. To complete the task there 3. Work environment: At the adult stage,
is a need for an active learner and an active people are expected to make career choices.
environment. For example during infancy If the adults find their job interesting then
and early childhood children are expected to they get motivated to work. Even the
learn to walk, learn to talk, to take in solid environment in which adults work should
foods, learn to control elimination of waste, be motivating with good support from peers
learn about sexual differences (for example and seniors for the adults to grow.
knowing that a girl’s body is different from 4. Economic factors: If adults are employed
a boy)and sexual modesty (for example and are paid well, then they are able to
dressing according to the gender). Similarly support themselves and their family
at every stage of human development there members. This leads to having good
are certain developmental tasks given by interpersonal relationships with the family
Havinghurst. members. Unemployment leads to self
doubt and low self esteem which is not good

4
for development. Cognitive development is at its peak around
Thus it can be said that in the 35 years of age. Research by Fischer, Yan and
adulthood stage there are lot of changes Stewart in 2003 suggested that adult
happening due to the new roles and cognitive development is a complex,ever
expectations from the society to perform changing process that may be even more
each role well. So support and guidance active than cognitive development in
from family and peers adults is a must at infancy and early childhood. Although
this stage of development. during late adulthood cognition may start
deteriorating, engaging in mentally and
1.5 Adulthood and Areas of development: physically stimulating activities leads to less
Physical, Social, Cognitive, Language, cognitive decline and reduced incidence of
Emotional & Moral dementia and mild cognitive
impairment.(Hertzog, Kramer, Wilson, &
1.5.1 Changes in physical development Lindenberger, 2009; Larson et al., 2006;
Podewils et al., 2005).
In early adulthood a person may continue to
grow a bit in height and weight. But these 1.5.4 Changes in language development
changes are not noticeable as they are in the
adolescent period. Once an adult moves to Language is a system of communication. It
the middle adulthood stage there are more involves phonemes, morphemes,
noticeable changes like the loss of skins syntax,context, grammar, semantics and
elasticity. Some adults also face problems pragmatics. To understand all these
related to weight gain and or hair loss or components of a language involves time. At
grey hair. Women go through menopause. In adulthood humans are well equipped with
late adulthood wrinkles start appearing on at least their native language. They
the face, skin becomes loose, eyesight understand all the components of language.
deteriorates and many more health They further use language for effective
problems like arthritis, heart disease come communication with partneres, children,
into the picture. Though ,these changes are peers and co-workers.
inevitable but can be managed through
exercise, good diet and medicines. 1.5.5 Changes in emotional development

1.5.2 Changes in social development During this stage adults have to make
decisions regarding their career and
Social development involves getting along relationship formation. They are also
with people and to handle conflicts in a expected to control their emotions in a
socially appropriate manner. In adulthood socially appropriate manner. There are a lot
social development is very important of expectations stress as a partner, parent
because it’s the stage where an adult has to and as an employee that an adult has to
deal with people and relations at home and fulfil. These expectations cause. People who
work environment. Most of the adults at this have good interpersonal relationships and
stage have the knowledge about maintiaing who can manage their emotions well
good social relations. inorder to sustain their relationships are able
to develop emotionally.
1.5.3 Changes in cognitive development
1.5.6 Changes in moral development

5
Moral development helps to choose between Persons with ID find it difficult to read non
right and wrong. Moral reasoning helps to verbal cues which makes it difficult for them
make the choice. During childhood stage the to have or sustain good social relations with
fear of punishment or the approval of others. This social skill deficit at times leads
significant others leads children to choose to loneliness
what is right. As one grows into an adult the
moral reasoning for choosing right and 1.6.3 Problems in cognitive development
wrong depends on ones belief and core
values. Moral judgement at the adult level Crystallized intelligence is the knowledge
requires higher moral reasoning. So for and experience that one gathers throughout
moral development cognitive development one's lifespan. It consists of all the
is a must. information or strategies acquired during
the development. This remains steady or
1.6 Common adulthood problems in may even increase slightly during
various areas of development adulthood. But fluid intelligence which
depends on basic information processing
1.6.1 Problems in physical development skills declines during adulthood. The
cognitive processing speed goes down along
Along with the wrinkles and age spots that with the problem solving ability and
appear on the skin, there are other problems divided attention.
that affect the daily functioning of an adult.
There is vision and hearing loss that tends to Cognition is a problem area in persons with
lower the pace of day to day activities. It ID so as they develop into adults their
also tends to affect social relationships when cognition will still be that of a child.
hearing loss affects conversations. Other
physical problems like BP, diabetes, heart 1.6.4 Problems in language development
problems, arthritis also come up which at
times affects the mobility of an adult too. Adults use language to converse with peers
and family members, to express needs and
Adults with Intellectual disability may have feelings, present ideas to others in
additional issues like seizures or any other educational or work settings and build new
comorbid condition which may need knowledge based on reading or listening.
medication or else it may worsen their But in late adulthood as the memory fades
physical health. some adults find it difficult to remember
words during conversations or name of an
1.6.1 Problems in social development object.

Social skills needed for sustaining a Compared to normal people, the person
relationship is very important for a human with ID might not have good vocabulary or
being at all stages. But it becomes all the the language needed to express. So
more important in adulthood as dealing adulthood problems add on to their
with other people increases during this language problems as well.
period. Be it the partner or colleagues, if
maturity is not shown in these relationships 1.6.5 Problems in emotional development
then they tend to fail.
There are many challenges that an adult
comes across when it comes to sustaining

6
relationships. Marriage and family participation in the community. So
formation leads to a lot of change in the community inclusion goes with the social
adult’s life. As these new roles bring in new model of disability. It believes that there is a
responsibilities, it also brings along stress. gap between what a person with disability
As the roles are new, there is confusion as to needs and what the environment offers. This
what is expected. Only when there is good gap leads to unemployment, unhappy
communication between the partners are relationships and many more issues.
they able to sort out things. Community inclusion tries to bridge this
gap and acts as fit between the person with
In some cases adults also go through midlife disabilities and the environment. Members
crises, if they are unable to find a job or if of the community includes not only parents
they are not able to sustain a relationship. and guardians their extended families,
They start doubting themselves and their neighbours, school but also religious leaders
choices. According to Erikson this is the (who are often considerably influential in
stage of generativity v/s stagnation. If changing attitudes),businessmen,
people do not think of themselves as shopkeepers, government workers and
contributing members of the society then many others.
they develop a feeling of stagnation. Some
may even develop bad habits like drinking Communities can help build awareness and
or smoking. create positive attitudes towards child rights
by conducting sensitization programs with
Persons with ID find it difficult to express active participation of people with
themselves in a socially appropriate way disabilities. The community can be involved
and if there is no support or guidance given in monitoring the media for negative
at the right age then it becomes difficult for portrayal of people with disabilities.
them to behave in a mature manner.
1.7.2 Domains and Principles of
1.6.6 Problems in moral development Community Inclusion

As moral development requires higher The domains of community inclusion

cognitive skills, for individuals with ID include the following areas which are
moral judgment becomes difficult. They required for leading a normal life. They are:
may do it superficially or because they fear
punishment. 1. Employment
2. Education
3. Leisure/Recreation
4. Spirituality/Religion
1.7 Implications of the above for 5. Voting/Volunteering
Community Inclusion 1.7.1 Definition and
meaning of Community Inclusion
All the domains are equally important for
Salzer defines community inclusion as “The ones physical, mental and cognitive
opportunity to live in the community, and development. Apart from these domains
be valued for one’s uniqueness and ability, there are certain principles of
like everyone else.” So community inclusion Community-Based Inclusion which are as
aims at not only providing opportunities for follows:
participation but also welcoming that

7
1. Community based inclusion instruction is merely presence in the community but it
individualized and focuses on those specific also means to have social connections and
skills needed and wanted by the person for being able to participate in the social
a desired life. Some of the questions activities (Cummins & Lau 2003; Hall 2005;
addressed in this principle are what are the Overmars Marx et al. 2013).In another study
community places that the person desires to by Stancliffe et al. 2014 and Wilson et al.
access? What are the resources available in 2015 it was seen that there was a positive
the community? What are the dreams of the impact on loneliness for people with
person related to community life? So this intellectual disability. Still, many people
principle helps the people to decide the skill with intellectual disability remain socially
to be polished according to their interests. isolated, and hence lonely, as they require
2. The instructions are provided as far as support to access social opportunities and
possible in a natural setting where the face added physical barriers. Lack of travel
person would apply the skill taught. skills was noted to be one of the major
3. The instructions are looked at as a whole hassles in people with ID to socialize with
rather than as an isolated skill. So friends (Department of Health, 2011).
instructions focus on being a part of
functional activities Thus in the light of the social and physical
4. 4. Varied instruction combined with problems mentioned above, non
supports natural to a setting are used to help accessibility due to transport adds to further
individuals generalize skills. problems in the development and thus
5. 5. Instruction takes place at the time of day hinders community inclusion.
at which the task is usually performed.
6. 6. Whenever possible, instruction comes Although the association is not clear,
from the natural environment from those Gilmore & Cuskelly (2014) suggested that
with the skills and experience who are in the the ramifications of loneliness and social
setting where the skills will be utilized. exclusion could potentially contribute to the
known mental and physical health
1.7.3 Implications of problems in human inequalities that further exacerbate social
development in Community Inclusion exclusion.

1. Non accessibility: For inclusion in Attitude: towards disability is also

mainstream activities, such as employment, one of the barriers to community inclusion.
education and recreation access to transport People think that the people with disability
for people with disabilities is very would not be able to work in the normal
important. setting; it may be too much for them to
handle. If they employ PWDs then
Accessibility to transport also improves infrastructure may have to be adapted to
social networks and connections among their needs. The non accessibility of
individuals. Hence accessibility indirectly transport may result in absenteeism. Some
helps in social development of adults with of the employers do not want to take the
disability. If there is no access then it leads to responsibility. Since the cognitive
loneliness. As per the study by Mc Villey et development of PWDs is not high, they feel
al. in 2006 it was noted that social exclusion, that they won’t be able to fit in the job. Thus
loneliness and lack of friends lead many this leads to fewer opportunities for PWDs.
people with ID with health and well being Furthermore it leads to unemployment and
problems. Social inclusion does not mean hinders their overall development. If there is

8
unemployment then payment of medical
bills becomes a problem. Thus indirectly the
attitudinal problems lead to problems in
health as well along with further hindrance
in cognitive and social development. Implications:

So community inclusion is very important ● Dependence: Increased reliance on caregivers

not only for the concerned individual with for basic needs and daily activities.
disabilities, but also for the community. ● Quality of Life: Reduced ability to participate in
Only when they are part of the community daily activities, potential for social isolation, and
will it lead to their holistic development. decreased self-esteem.
This will make them feel accepted in the
Interventions:
community, as they become contributing
members of the society.
● Occupational Therapy: Focuses on developing
fine and gross motor skills necessary for daily
Comprehensive Unit on Adaptive Deficits
living tasks.
in Normal Development and Disabilities
● Adaptive Tools: Utilization of aids such as
adapted utensils, dressing aids, and modified
Introduction
bathroom equipment to enhance independence.
Adaptive deficits impact an individual’s ● Routine Establishment: Creating and
ability to manage everyday tasks and maintaining structured routines to help
effectively navigate social, emotional, individuals learn and practice self-help skills
cognitive, and communicative demands. consistently.
These deficits are particularly challenging ● Life Skills Training: Teaching essential life skills
for individuals with disabilities. such as cooking, money management, and
Understanding these challenges and personal hygiene in a supportive environment.
implementing targeted interventions can ● Family Training: Educating family members on
enhance independence and quality of life. strategies to support the development of
self-help skills at home.
Adaptive Deficits A. Self-Help Areas
B. Emotional Areas
Challenges:
Challenges:
● Normal Development: Minor
delays in achieving self-care ● Normal Development: Occasional difficulties in
milestones, such as feeding, emotional regulation and expression, especially
dressing, and toileting. during periods of stress.
● Disabilities: ● Disabilities:
○ Physical Disabilities (e.g., Cerebral
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD):
Palsy, Spina Bifida): Significant
Challenges in identifying, understanding,
challenges in performing basic
and expressing emotions appropriately.
self-care tasks independently due to
motor impairments.
Mood Disorders (e.g., Bipolar Disorder,
○ Intellectual Disabilities: Difficulties
Depression): Heightened emotional
in understanding and performing
instability and difficulty in emotional
sequential steps in self-care tasks.
regulation.

9
 Social Anxiety Disorder: Intense fear of
social interactions and being judged
negatively by others.

Implications:

● Behavioral Issues: Increased likelihood of Implications:

outbursts, tantrums, and other maladaptive
behaviors due to poor emotional regulation. ● Isolation: Increased risk of social isolation
● Social Relationships: Strained interactions with and loneliness due to difficulties in social
peers and family members, affecting social interactions.
bonds and support systems. ● Conflict: Higher likelihood of
misunderstandings and conflicts in social
Interventions: settings.

● Emotional Skills Training: Programs Interventions:

designed to teach emotional identification,
understanding, and regulation techniques. ● Social Skills Training: Structured programs that
● Mindfulness and Relaxation Techniques: teach appropriate social behaviors and
Practices such as deep breathing, meditation, communication strategies.
and yoga to help manage stress and anxiety. ● Peer-Mediated Interventions: Involving peers
● Counseling and Therapy: Individual or group in the learning process to model and reinforce
therapy sessions to address emotional social skills.
challenges and develop coping strategies. ● Group Activities: Encouraging participation in
● Positive Reinforcement: Encouraging group activities to practice social interactions in
appropriate emotional responses through a supportive environment.
positive reinforcement techniques. ● Role-Playing: Using role-playing scenarios to
● Parent and Caregiver Support: Providing practice and reinforce social skills in a controlled
training and resources to parents and setting.
caregivers to help them support emotional ● Social Stories: Utilizing social stories to teach
regulation in children. appropriate social responses and behaviors in
various situations.
C. Social Areas
D. Cognitive Areas
Challenges:
Challenges:
● Normal Development: Occasional social
missteps and learning how to navigate ● Normal Development: Variations in cognitive
complex social interactions. abilities, such as problem-solving, planning, and
● Disabilities: memory, especially during developmental
transitions.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): ● Disabilities:
Significant difficulties in understanding and
using social cues, including body language, Intellectual Disabilities: Significant
facial expressions, and tone of voice. challenges in reasoning, problem-solving,
and information processing.

10
 Learning Disabilities (e.g., Dyslexia, Speech and Language Disorders (e.g.,
ADHD): Specific difficulties in academic Stuttering, Aphasia): Significant difficulties
skills such as reading, writing, and in speech production, comprehension, and
mathematics. language use.

Hearing Impairments: Challenges in

acquiring and using spoken language due to
reduced auditory input.

Implications:

● Academic Performance: Struggles in school Implications:

settings, impacting learning, achievement, and
future employment opportunities. ● Communication Barriers: Struggles in
● Daily Functioning: Challenges in managing communicating with others, leading to
daily tasks and responsibilities, leading to frustration and social withdrawal.
reduced independence. ● Academic Challenges: Difficulties in
understanding instructions, participating in
Interventions: discussions, and completing language-based
tasks.
● Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Helps
in developing problem-solving skills and Interventions:
adaptive thinking patterns.
● Educational Support: Specialized instruction, ● Speech and Language Therapy: Focused on
tutoring, and use of assistive technology to improving articulation, vocabulary, and
support learning. grammar to enhance communication skills.
● Memory Aids: Tools like visual schedules, ● Augmentative and Alternative Communication
reminders, and organizational aids to (AAC): Use of communication devices, picture
enhance memory and task completion. boards, and sign language to support those with
● Individualized Education Programs (IEPs): severe language impairments.
Tailored educational plans that address ● Language Development Programs: Structured
specific cognitive challenges and set programs to enhance language comprehension
achievable goals. and expression through targeted activities.
● Executive Function Training: Programs that ● Early Intervention: Programs aimed at
focus on improving skills such as planning, identifying and addressing language delays
organization, and time management. early in development to improve outcomes.
● Parental Involvement: Encouraging parents to
E. Language Areas engage in language-rich activities and
interactions with their children to support
Challenges: language development.

● Normal Development: Variations in

Conclusion
language acquisition and
development, with some children Addressing adaptive deficits in self-help,
taking longer to reach milestones. emotional, social, cognitive, and language
● Disabilities: areas is crucial for enhancing the quality of
life and promoting independence in

11
individuals with disabilities. Through social interactions. Types of problem
tailored interventions and support, behaviors include:
individuals can develop essential skills,
improve their functioning, and participate ● Violent and Destructive Behavior: Actions
more fully in everyday activities. By that cause harm to objects or people.
recognizing and addressing these deficits ● Temper Tantrums: Emotional outbursts,
early, society can foster an inclusive such as screaming or rolling on the floor.
environment that values and supports the ● Misbehavior with Others: Interfering with
contributions of all individuals, regardless others' activities, like grabbing objects.
of their abilities. ● Self-Injurious Behavior: Actions that harm
oneself, such as head-banging.
● Repetitive Behaviors: Actions repeated
over and over, like rocking or
hand-flapping.
Adaptive Behavior (Skill ● Odd Behavior: Unusual actions, like
Behavior) laughing or talking to oneself without
cause.
Adaptive behavior refers to behaviors that ● Hyperactive Behavior: Difficulty sitting
are socially accepted and age-appropriate. still or staying focused.
These behaviors enable individuals to ● Rebellious Behavior: Refusal to follow
function effectively in their social rules or commands.
environment. Types of adaptive behaviors ● Anti-Social Behaviors: Actions that go
include: against social norms, such as stealing or
cheating.
● Motor Skills: Physical movements and ● Fears: Irrational fears of specific places,
coordination. people, animals, or objects.
● Activities of Daily Living: Skills
necessary for independent living (e.g., These behaviors can vary widely in severity
dressing, eating). and impact on individuals' daily lives and
● Language: Communication skills. interactions. Understanding and addressing
● Reading and Writing: Literacy skills. maladaptive behaviors often involves
● Numeracy and Time Management: tailored intervention strategies based on
Understanding numbers and time individual needs and circumstances.
concepts.
● Domestic and Social Skills: Household Identification of Mal-adaptive behaviour
and interpersonal skills.
● Pre-vocational and Money Maladaptive behaviors encompass a
Management: Skills related to work spectrum of responses that individuals
readiness and financial management. employ to navigate perceived challenges or
discomforts, often resulting in adverse
consequences for their physical health,
Problem Behavior (Maladaptive
mental well-being, and social interactions.
Behavior) Unlike adaptive behaviors that facilitate
constructive coping and resilience,
Problem behaviors are not socially accepted
maladaptive behaviors tend to exacerbate
and may be age-inappropriate. These
underlying issues and hinder personal
behaviors can interfere with learning and
growth.

12
 Types and Characteristics of physiological and psychological
repercussions. Chronic stress stemming
1. Avoidance: This prevalent maladaptive from prolonged avoidance or
strategy involves evading tasks, interactions, self-destructive habits contributes to a
or thoughts perceived as distressing or heightened risk of cardiovascular ailments,
intimidating. While initially providing relief gastrointestinal disorders, and
from immediate discomfort, prolonged immunological deficiencies. Psychologically,
avoidance fosters heightened anxiety, individuals may experience deteriorating
impairs problem-solving skills, and erodes mental health characterized by depression,
self-confidence. It often culminates in a cycle anxiety disorders, and impaired social
of escalating stress and diminished coping functioning, further complicating their
capacity. ability to engage meaningfully in daily life.

2. Self-Destructive Behaviors: 4. Treatment Approaches: Addressing

maladaptive behaviors necessitates a
● Self-Harm: Manifesting in various forms multifaceted therapeutic approach tailored
such as cutting, burning, or scratching, to individual needs and circumstances:
self-harm serves as a maladaptive coping
mechanism to alleviate emotional distress ● Psychotherapeutic Interventions:
or exert a semblance of control over Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and
overwhelming feelings. It reflects dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) are
profound psychological turmoil and instrumental in identifying maladaptive
requires sensitive intervention to address thought patterns, fostering adaptive
underlying emotional pain and foster coping skills, and promoting emotional
healthier coping strategies. regulation.
● Eating Disorders: Characterized by ● Medication Management: In cases
distorted eating patterns—ranging from of co-occurring disorders or severe
restrictive diets to binge-eating and symptomatology, pharmacotherapy
purging behaviors—eating disorders pose may complement psychotherapeutic
significant health risks and impact body interventions to alleviate distressing
image, mobility, and overall well-being. symptoms and stabilize mood.
Rooted in complex psychological factors, ● Holistic Care Strategies:
these behaviors often emerge as attempts Emphasizing lifestyle modifications,
to manage stress, assert control, or derive such as stress management
comfort amidst emotional upheaval. techniques, mindfulness practices,
● Substance Abuse: Whether through and nutritional counseling,
alcohol, illicit drugs, or prescription enhances resilience and promotes
medications, substance abuse represents a overall well-being.
maladaptive endeavor to mitigate
emotional distress or achieve temporary Functional Analysis of Behavior
emotional numbing. It escalates into
addiction when reliance on substances Purpose:
disrupts daily functioning and exacerbates
underlying psychological vulnerabilities. The purpose of a Functional Analysis of
Behavior (FAB) is to discern the underlying
3. Impact on Health and Well-being: variables that influence behavior, aiming to
Maladaptive behaviors precipitate a cascade establish cause-effect relationships. This

13
 approach, rooted in Skinnerian principles correlates antecedents (A) and consequences
(1953), seeks to elucidate the functional (C) with behaviors (B).
relationships between behaviors, their ● Strengths: Objectivity, quantitative data,
antecedents (triggers), and their relevance to real-world contexts.
consequences (reinforcements or ● Limitations: Requires extensive observation,
punishments). complexity in identifying relevant variables,
challenges in differentiating reinforcing
Goals: from incidental consequences.
● Considerations: Interpretation based on
● Understanding: To comprehensively grasp conditional probabilities, acknowledges
the environmental factors and conditions environmental noise and variability.
that maintain problematic behaviors.
● Treatment: To inform targeted interventions 3. Functional (Experimental) Analysis
and behavior modification strategies.
● Prevention: To mitigate the occurrence and ● Purpose: Conducted when descriptive
persistence of maladaptive behaviors by analysis yields inconclusive or contradictory
addressing their underlying causes findings.
effectively. ● Methodology: Systematically introduces and
removes environmental events (antecedents
Approaches to Assessment and consequences) in controlled conditions to
observe behavior changes.
1. Indirect Assessment ● Benefits: Allows for precise determination of
functional relationships between specific
Characteristics: Focuses on circumstances environmental stimuli and behavior.
surrounding behavior through verbal ● Challenges: Requires controlled settings,
reports (interviews, checklists, rating scales). careful manipulation of variables, ethical
considerations in inducing behaviors.
Strengths: Simplicity, efficiency in data
● Outcome: Provides insights into the precise
collection, structured approach for initial
contingencies that maintain or modify
assessment.
behaviors, essential for designing effective
behavior intervention plans (BIPs).
Limitations: Subjectivity of data, reliability
concerns, inadequate for treatment
Cognitive Behavioral Techniques (CBT)
planning.

Overview:
Implementation Suggestions: Use as a
preliminary guide, validate with multiple
CBT integrates cognitive restructuring and
informants, complement with further
behavioral modification techniques to
analysis.
address maladaptive thoughts and
behaviors. It operates on the premise that
2. Descriptive (Naturalistic) Analysis
changing dysfunctional thinking patterns
● Purpose: Identifies natural antecedents and can lead to corresponding changes in
consequences of behavior in real-life behavior and emotional responses.
settings.
Techniques:
● Procedure: Defines target behaviors,
observes occurrences in varied conditions,

14
● Cognitive Restructuring: Identifies and ● Positive Reinforcement: Events or stimuli
challenges irrational or negative thoughts that that increase the likelihood of behavior when
contribute to maladaptive behaviors. Techniques presented immediately after the behavior.
include cognitive reframing, thought stopping, ● Negative Reinforcement: Events or stimuli
and cognitive rehearsal. that increase behavior when removed
● Behavioral Activation: Encourages engagement immediately after the behavior. Automatic
in positive and rewarding activities to reinforcement is also considered, where
counteract avoidance behaviors and enhance behaviors are maintained by their own
motivation. consequences.
● Exposure Therapy: Gradual exposure to feared
stimuli or situations to reduce anxiety and c) Predict When the Problem Behavior Will
desensitize individuals to triggers. Occur-By understanding the antecedents
● Skill Building: Teaches adaptive coping skills, (triggers) and consequences associated with the
problem-solving strategies, and assertiveness problem behavior, functional analysis enables
training to promote effective behavioral prediction of circumstances that precipitate the
responses. behavior. This predictive ability allows for
proactive intervention strategies aimed at
Application: modifying environmental conditions to reduce
the occurrence of problem behaviors.
CBT is applied across various settings, including
clinical therapy, education, and organizational d) Design Effective Treatment Programs-Based
psychology, tailored to individual needs through on the identified functional relationships,
collaborative goal-setting and ongoing functional analysis informs the design of
assessment. It emphasizes evidence-based targeted and effective behavior intervention
practices and continuous evaluation to optimize plans (BIPs). Treatment strategies are tailored to
outcomes in behavior modification and mental address the specific underlying causes or
health treatment. maintaining factors of the problem behavior.
These strategies may include modifying
Goals of Functional Analysis environmental contingencies, teaching
alternative behaviors, or implementing
a) Define the Problem Behavior-One of the reinforcement schedules aligned with behavior
primary objectives of functional analysis is to change goals.
precisely define the problem behavior. This
involves objectively and specifically identifying General Characteristics
the behavior in terms of its observable and
measurable characteristics. A clear definition ● Direct and Quantitative Observation: Involves
ensures consistency in observation and systematic and controlled observation of
facilitates accurate assessment and treatment behavior under specified conditions.
implementation. ● Controlled Conditions: Settings where variables
are manipulated and compared between test
b) Identify Possible Causes of Behavior and control conditions to isolate causal factors.
● Data Collection: Includes frequency, duration,
Functional analysis aims to identify the and other quantitative measures to document
functional relationships between behavior behavior patterns.
and its consequences. It categorizes these
consequences into: Strengths

15
● Clear Demonstration of Cause-Effect ● Alone Condition: Solitary environment
Relations: Provides empirical evidence of how without toys or interactions, serving as a
antecedents and consequences influence control condition.
behavior.
● Precision in Identifying Variables: Allows These conditions can be implemented in
isolation of intermittent or subtle variables controlled laboratory settings (analogue) or
contributing to behavior. natural environments where problem
● Foundation for Treatment Development: Forms behaviors commonly occur (e.g., classrooms,
a basis for developing structured and homes). By systematically manipulating
evidence-based treatment plans. variables and comparing behavior across
conditions, functional analysis enhances
Challenges to Functional Analysis understanding of behavior dynamics and
Methodology informs effective therapeutic approaches

● Complexity of Assessment: Requires skilled Steps Involved in Behavior Management

observation and interpretation of behavioral Program (BMP)
data.
● Time Constraints: Conducting thorough 1. Identification of Problem Behaviors:
functional analyses can be time-intensive. Initially, behaviors are identified that are
● Setting Constraints: Access to controlled problematic or undesirable, defined in
environments may be limited, impacting the specific, observable terms.
feasibility of conducting experiments. 2. Statement of Problem Behaviors: These
● Risk Considerations: Some behaviors may pose behaviors are clearly articulated and
risks during observation, necessitating careful documented to ensure clarity and
planning and ethical considerations. consistency in assessment.
3. Selection of Problem Behaviors:
Functional Analysis in Practice Prioritization of specific behaviors to target
for intervention based on criteria such as
Functional analysis involves structured severity, impact on learning, and ease of
assessments conducted under various management.
conditions to discern behavior-environment 4. Identification of Rewards: Rewards are
relationships. Typical conditions include: defined as events following behavior that
increase the likelihood of that behavior
● Attention Condition: Providing attention recurring in the future. Various types
or reprimands following problem include primary, secondary/material, social,
behaviors. activity, token rewards, and privileges.
● Tangible Condition: Offering access to
desired objects following problem
behaviors.
● Demand Condition: Introducing tasks or 5. Recording Baseline of Problem Behaviors:
demands and temporarily removing them
Establishing a baseline involves
following problem behaviors.
systematically recording the frequency,
● Play Condition: Positive interactions and
duration, or intensity of problem behaviors
provision of toys, ignoring problem
before intervention begins.
behaviors.

6. Functional Analysis of Problem Behaviors:

16
 Conducting a functional analysis aims to How to Give Rewards
identify antecedents (what happens before),
behavior itself, and consequences (what ● Rewards should be given immediately after
happens after) using methods like the A-B-C the desired behavior.Clearly communicate
model. why the reward is given and ensure it is
proportionate to the behavior.Use a mix of
7. Development and Implementation of social, material, and other rewards as
Behavior Management Programs: Based on appropriate to maintain effectiveness.
the functional analysis, tailored behavior
management programs are designed and Recording Problem Behaviors Methods
put into action, utilizing strategies like include event or frequency recording,
reinforcement, shaping, or punishment duration recording, interval recording, and
depending on the functional assessment. time sampling to accurately document
8. Evaluation of Behavior Management behavior patterns.
Programs: Programs are continuously
monitored and evaluated for effectiveness, Functional Analysis of Problem Behaviors
with adjustments made as necessary to A-B-C Model:
improve outcomes.
○ A (Antecedent): What occurs immediately
Steps in Identifying Problem Behaviors before the behavior?
○ B (Behavior): The observable behavior itself.
● Identification: Recognizing and defining ○ C (Consequence): What happens immediately
specific behaviors that are problematic. after the behavior?
● Observation: Systematic observation of ○ Understanding Factors:
behaviors in different contexts and situations. ● Before (Antecedent): When, where, with whom,
● Interview: Gathering information from relevant and why the behavior occurs.
parties such as parents, caregivers, or teachers. ● During (Behavior): Frequency and duration of
● Direct Testing: Conducting direct assessments the behavior.
or tests to understand behavior patterns. ● After (Consequence): Immediate effects on the
child and others, including benefits derived
Selection of Problem Behaviors from the behavior.
● Behavior modification techniques are systematic
● Prioritize behaviors that are manageable, and methodical, aiming to create meaningful
impactful, and interfere with learning or behavior change through understanding and
daily activities. altering the factors that influence behavior.
● Consider frequency, severity, and duration ●
of behaviors when selecting targets for
intervention. Behavioral Techniques

Identification of Rewards 1. Changing Antecedents: Modify environmental

factors such as settings, situations, demands, or
● Rewards are identified based on routines that trigger problem behaviors.
observation, direct inquiry, reward history, Altering these antecedents can prevent
and preferences. behaviors from occurring.
● They should be easily accessible, 2. Extinction/Ignoring: Extinction involves
meaningful, and capable of reinforcing withholding reinforcement (attention or
desired behaviors effectively. rewards) that previously maintained a behavior.

17
 By ignoring the problem behavior consistently, Cognitive Behavioral Techniques (CBT)
its occurrence decreases over time as the
behavior no longer produces desired outcomes. CBT is a therapeutic approach focused on
3. Time Out:Time out removes the child from a changing patterns of thinking and behavior
rewarding environment or removes the reward to improve mental health and well-being.
itself following problem behavior. Various types Key techniques include:
include relocating the child within the
classroom, removing toys or materials, or ● Cognitive Restructuring: Identifying and
temporary isolation. changing negative thought patterns that
4. Physical Restraint: Involves physically contribute to emotional distress or
restricting a child's movements for a brief period maladaptive behaviors.
following problem behavior to prevent harm or ● Behavioral Activation: Encouraging
escalation. individuals to engage in positive,
5. Response Cost: This technique involves rewarding activities to counteract
withdrawing previously earned rewards or depression or anxiety.
imposing fines for engaging in problem ● Problem-Solving Skills: Teaching effective
behaviors. It reinforces the notion that problem-solving strategies to manage
undesirable behaviors result in loss of privileges challenges and improve coping
or earned rewards. mechanisms.
6. Overcorrection (Restitution): Requires the child ● Homework Assignments: Assigning tasks
to correct the consequences of their behavior, between sessions to practice skills learned
often by restoring the environment to a better and apply techniques in real-life situations,
state than before the behavior occurred. This enhancing the effectiveness of therapy.
technique not only corrects the behavior but also
teaches responsibility. CBT is evidence-based and widely used in
7. Conveying Displeasure: Involves verbal treating various mental health conditions
expressions of disapproval or disappointment such as depression, anxiety disorders, PTSD,
following problem behaviors. This communicates to and more. It emphasizes collaboration
the child that their behavior is not acceptable. between therapist and client to achieve
8. Gradual Exposure for Fears: Used to reduce specific goals within a structured,
fears or anxieties by gradually exposing the time-limited framework.
child to feared objects, situations, or people in a
controlled and supportive manner until the fear Behavior Modification Techniques
diminishes.
Behavior modification involves changing
9. Differential Rewards: Reinforce behaviors that
human behavior through conditioning or
are alternatives to problem behaviors or
other learning techniques, as defined by J.B.
behaviors displayed at a low rate. This
Watson. Below are key steps and techniques
technique encourages desirable behaviors by
involved in behavior modification
providing rewards contingent on their
programs.
occurrence.
10. Self-Management Techniques: Techniques
Steps Involved in Behavior Management
where the child learns to monitor, record, and
Program (BMP)
reward their own behaviors. This includes
self-observation, self-recording, self-cueing, and
1. Identification of Problem Behaviors: Recognize
self-reward techniques to promote
and note down problematic behaviors.
self-regulation.

18
2. Statement of Problem Behaviors: Clearly Definition: A reward is an event that occurs
articulate the problem behaviors. after a behavior, increasing the likelihood of
3. Selection of Problem Behaviors: Choose the behavior reoccurring.
specific behaviors to address first.
4. Identification of Rewards: Determine what Types of Rewards:
rewards will be effective.
5. Recording Baseline of Problem Behaviors: ● Primary Rewards
Document the frequency and context of the ● Secondary/Material Rewards
behaviors. ● Social Rewards
6. Functional Analysis of Problem Behaviors: ● Activity Rewards
Analyze the behaviors to understand their ● Token Rewards
antecedents, behaviors, and consequences. ● Privileges
7. Development and Implementation of Behavior
Management Programs: Create and execute a Selecting Rewards:
plan to modify the behavior.
1. Observe the child's behavior.
8. Evaluation of Behavior Management Programs:
2. Ask the child directly.
Assess the effectiveness of the implemented
3. Consult parents, caretakers, or others
strategies.
familiar with the child.
Steps in Identifying Problem Behaviors 4. Use a Reward Preference Checklist.
5. Review the child's reward history.
● Identification of Problem Behavior: Recognize 6. Choose easily available and dispensable
and list the problematic behaviors. rewards.
● Observation: Observe the behavior in different 7. Use reward sampling techniques.
contexts. 8. Select appropriate and strong rewards.
● Interview: Talk to people who interact with the 9. Change rewards periodically.
individual, like parents or teachers.
Giving Rewards:
● Direct Testing: Use structured methods to assess
the behavior.
● Reward only desirable behaviors.
Assessment Tool: BASIC-MR ● Be clear and immediate with rewards.
● Reward the target behavior consistently.
Selection of Problem Behaviors ● Reward in appropriate amounts.
● Combine social rewards with other types.
Prioritize specific behaviors to target, ● Change rewards and fade them over time.
considering factors such as:
Re encoding Problem Behaviors
1. Ease of management.
2. Potential for injury to the child or others. ● Event or Frequency Recording
3. Impact on learning and teaching activities. ● Duration Recording
4. Frequency, duration, and severity of the ● Interval Recording
behavior. ● Time Sampling
5. Child's involvement in learning activities.
6. Consultation with parents.

Identification of Rewards Functional Analysis of Problem Behaviors

A-B-C Model:

19
 1. Antecedent: What happens Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT):
immediately before the behavior?
2. Behavior: The behavior itself. ● Focuses on changing negative thought patterns
3. Consequence: What happens to reduce emotional distress and self-defeating
immediately after the behavior? behavior.
● Effective for treating depression, anxiety
Understanding 'Before' Factors: When and disorders, social phobia, PTSD, etc.
where does the problem behavior occur? ● Techniques include cognitive restructuring,
behavioral activation, problem-solving, and
With whom and why does it happen? coping skills training.
● Active role of patients with homework
Understanding 'During' Factors: Frequency assignments to practice techniques.
and duration of the problem behavior.
Exposure Therapy
Understanding 'After' Factors:
Environmental reactions and effects on the ● Use: Effective for phobias and OCD.
child. ● Process: Gradual exposure to anxiety-inducing
stimuli until the anxiety diminishes.
Behavioral Techniques in Managing Problem ● Frequency: Repeated exposure exercises are
Behaviors conducted three times a day.
● Progression: Move to more challenging
1. Changing the Antecedents: Altering factors that situations progressively.
precede and trigger problem behaviors.
2. Extinction/Ignoring: Withholding attention to
Management of Maladaptive Behavior at Home
decrease problem behaviors.
and School
3. Time Out: Removing the child from rewarding
situations temporarily. ABC’s of Behavior Management: Antecedents:
4. Physical Restraint: Restricting physical Factors that trigger behavior. Behaviors: Specific
movements to manage severe behaviors. actions to encourage or discourage.Consequences:
5. Response Cost: Taking away earned rewards Results that follow the behavior, affecting its
following problem behavior. recurrence.
6. Overcorrection (Restitution): Having the child
correct the effects of misbehavior in an Defining Behaviors: Specific, observable, and
exaggerated manner. measurable.Antecedents: Avoid: Assuming
7. Conveying Displeasure: Verbal commands expectations, calling from a distance, unannounced
expressing displeasure following problem transitions, rapid-fire instructions.Embrace: Clear
behaviors. expectations, environment adjustments, transition
8. Gradual Exposure for Fears: Gradually warnings, choices for children.
exposing the child to feared stimuli.
9. Differential Rewards: Rewarding alternate, Creating Effective Consequences:
other, or low-rate behaviors.
10. Self-Management Techniques: Teaching Avoid: Negative attention, delayed and
self-observation, recording, cueing, rewarding, disproportionate consequences. Effective: Positive
correspondence training, and anger control. attention, active ignoring for minor misbehaviors,
reward menus, and structured time outs.
Cognitive Behavioral Techniques

20
By understanding and applying these principles and ● Target behaviors should be specific, observable,
techniques, both parents and educators can more and measurable.
effectively manage and modify problematic ● Examples of poorly defined behaviors: "acting
behaviors, creating a more conducive environment up," "being good."
for positive behavior development. ● Examples of well-defined behaviors: "running
around the room" (undesirable), "starting
4.4 Management of Maladaptive Behavior at Home homework on time" (desirable).
and School, Parental Counseling - Individual,
Group, and Community Antecedents: The Good and the Bad Antecedents
to Avoid:
Managing challenging behavior in children
is one of the significant challenges faced by ● Assuming expectations are understood
parents and educators. Behavioral therapy without clear communication.
techniques can offer effective ways to ● Giving instructions from a distance.
respond, providing a roadmap to manage ● Transitioning without warning.
problem behaviors and help children ● Asking rapid-fire questions or giving a series
develop self-regulation skills. The ABC's of of instructions at once.
Behavior Management can be particularly
helpful in this context. Antecedents to Embrace:

ABC’s of Behavior Management at Home ● Be aware of the situation: Manage

environmental and emotional factors like hunger,
To respond effectively to problematic fatigue, and distractions.
behavior, it is crucial to consider three ● Adjust the environment: Remove distractions,
components: Antecedents, Behaviors, and provide snacks, establish organized workspaces,
Consequences. and schedule breaks.
● Make expectations clear: Sit down with the child
1. Antecedents: These are the factors that precede and present expectations verbally.
a behavior, making it more or less likely to ● Provide countdowns for transitions: Prepare
occur. Understanding and anticipating children for transitions with time warnings.
antecedents (or triggers) can help prevent ● Let kids have a choice: Offer structured choices
misbehavior to give children a sense of control.

2. Behaviors: These are the specific actions that Creating Effective Consequences
need to be encouraged or discouraged.
Clearly defined behaviors help in setting Consequences to Avoid:
clear expectations and measuring progress.
Negative attention: Avoid raising your voice or
3. Consequences: These are the results that spanking, as it can increase bad behavior over time.
follow a behavior, influencing the likelihood Delayed consequences: Ensure consequences are
of its recurrence. Immediate and appropriate immediate for better behavior linkage.
consequences are more effective in Disproportionate consequences: Avoid overreacting
modifying behavior. with huge punishments, which can be demoralizing.
Positive consequences for negative behavior: Do
Define Behaviors not inadvertently reinforce bad behavior by doing
tasks for the child.
Identifying Target Behaviors:

21
 Effective Consequences: 7. Principle of Normalization: Enable children to
function in as normal an environment as
● Positive attention for positive behaviors: Reinforce possible.
good behavior with positive feedback to maintain 8. Principle of Fairness: Ensure interventions are
and encourage ongoing good behavior. fair and proportionate to the behavior.
● Ignoring actively: Use active ignoring for minor 9. Respect for Dignity and Worth: Interventions
misbehaviors, giving positive attention when should help students improve skills without
desired behavior resumes. degrading their dignity.
● Reward menus: Offer a variety of rewards that 10. Continuum of Behavior Management
children can choose from for desired behaviors. Interventions: Use the least restrictive, yet
● Time outs: Use time outs correctly by being clear, effective, interventions to respect students'
consistent, setting rules, and ensuring the child rights.
completes the original task post time out. 11. Rational and Well-Planned Behavior Change:
Ensure interventions are justified, well-planned,
4.5 Ethical Issues in Behavior Management and and prescriptive to the behavior, respecting
Implications for Inclusion ethical considerations and due process.
12. Consent: Notify and obtain consent from those
Ethical considerations in behavior management are involved with the child before implementing
crucial, as perceptions of unfairness can undermine management procedures.
trust between students and teachers. Effective 13. Impartiality: Treat all students equally and
classroom management involves encouraging avoid giving impressions of favoritism.
positive behavior change while maintaining ethical 14. Respect: Treat students politely, consider their
standards. ideas, and respond thoughtfully to challenges.
15. Concern for Students: Show genuine care for
Ethical Decision Screens for Behavior Change
students' well-being and academic performance
through actions and interactions.
1. Model Appropriate Leadership: Teachers
16. Integrity: Be consistent and truthful, explaining
should exhibit positive behavior that students
policies and decisions to ensure fairness and
can emulate, fostering a relationship of trust and
understanding.
respect.
17. Propriety: Act in a socially acceptable manner
2. Self-Discipline: Encourage self-discipline in
that respects students' sensibilities and follows
students by building a classroom environment
appropriate rules.
based on respect and trust.
3. Match Experiences to the Student: Ensure that
By adhering to these ethical principles and
school experiences are developmentally
utilizing effective behavior management
appropriate and meaningful for the child.
techniques, educators can create a positive,
4. Show Empathy: Approach students' problems
inclusive, and respectful learning
objectively and empathetically to view issues
environment that supports all students in
from multiple perspectives.
their behavioral and academic development.
5. High Expectations: Communicate belief in each
child's abilities and set high expectations for
achievement.
6. Freedom and Independence: Allow children as
much independence as possible while ensuring
safety and success through logical consequences.

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