ST AUGUSTINE’S COLLEGE, NEW KARU

SECOND TERM E-LEARNING NOTE

SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY
CLASS: SS1

SCHEME OF WORK

WEEK TOPIC
1. Revision/Introduction to the mole concept: Molar volume of gases, Avogadro’s number,
Percentage of element in a compound.
2-3 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations./ Introduction to Stoichiometry of Réactions
Empirical and Molecular formula
4-5. Laws of Chemical Combinations: Law of Conservation of Mass, Law of Constant Composition,
Law of Multiple Proportion.
6-7. Chemical Combinations: Electrovalent Bond: Properties of Electrovalent Compounds, Covalent
Bond: Properties of Covalent Compounds. Other Types of Bonding
8-9. The Kinetic theory of Matter and the Gas Laws: Boyle’s Law, Charles’ Law, Ideal Gas Equation,
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure.
10. Avogadro’s law, Gay-Lussac’s Law of Combining Volumes, Graham’s Law of Diffusion.

REFERENCE BOOKS
 New Chemistry for Senior Secondary School by Osei Yaw Ababio; U.T.M.E Past Questions and
Answers.
 Practical Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by Godwin Ojokuku
 Outline Chemistry for Schools & Colleges by Ojiodu C.C.
 Chemistry Pass Questions for S.S.C.E and UTME.

Page 1
WEEK ONE DATE-------------
TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO THE MOLE CONCEPT
CONTENT
 Relative atomic mass
 Relative molecular mass
 Molar volume of gases
 Percentage of an element in a compound

THE MOLE
A mole is a number of particles of a substance which may be atoms, ions, molecules or electrons. This
number of particles is approximately 6.02 x 1023 in magnitude and is known as Avogadro’s number of
particles.

The mole is defined as the amount of a substance which contains as many elementary units as there are
atoms in 12g of Carbon-12.
RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS (RAM)
The relative atomic mass of an element is the number of time the average mass of one atom of that
element is heavier than one twelfth the mass of one atom of Carbon-12. It indicates the mass of an atom
of an element. For e.g, the relative atomic mass of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, sodium and calcium are 1,
16, 12, 23, and 40 respectively.

The atomic mass of an element contains the same number of atoms which is 6.02 x 1023atoms; 1 mole of
hydrogen having atomic mass of 2.0g contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms.

EVALUATION
1. Define relative atomic mass of an element
2. State the relative atomic mass of the following elements: potassium, chlorine, silver, lead,
phosphorus and nitrogen

RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS

The relative molecular mass of an element or compound is the number of times the average mass of one
molecule of it is heavier than one-twelfth the mass of one atom of Carbon-12

It is the sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms in one molecule of that substance. It is also called
the formula mass. The formula mass refers not only to the relative mass of a molecule but also that of an
ion or radical.
Relative molecular mass is the same as molar or molecular mass in value and method of calculation. The
difference is that RAM has no unit but molar or molecular mass has a unit of g/mol.

CALCULATION
Calculate the molar mass/ relative molecular mass of:
1. Magnesium chloride
2. Sodium hydroxide
3. Calcium trioxocarbonate
[Mg=24, Cl=35.5, Na=23, O=16, H=1, Ca=40,C=12]

Solution:
1. MgCl 2 = 24 + 35.5x2 = 24 + 71 = 95gmol-1 but RMM is 95
2. NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40gmol-1 but RMM is 40
3. CaCO3 = 40 + 12 +16x3 = 100gmol-1 but RMM is 100

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EVALUATION
1. What is relative molecular mass of a compound?
2. Calculate the relative molecular mass of (a) NaNO3 (b) CuSO4.5H2O

MOLAR VOLUME OF GASES

The volume occupied by 1 mole of a gas at standard conditions of temperature and pressure (s.t.p) is 22.4
dm3. Thus 1 mole of oxygen gas of molar mass 32.0gmol-1 occupies a volume of 22.4dm3 at s.t.p and 1
mole of helium gas of molar mass 4.0gmol-1 occupies a volume of 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p.
Note: When the conditions of temperature and pressure are altered, the molar volume will also change.
Also, standard temperature = 273K and standard pressure = 760mmHg.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN QUANTITIES

Molar mass = mass(g) i.e. M = m gmol-1
Amount (moles) n
Note: Amount = Number of moles
Molar volume of gas = volume ( cm3 or dm3) i.e. Vm = v dm3mol-1
Amount (mole) n
Amount in mole = Reacting mass (g)
Molar mass (gmol-1)
Also, Amount of substance = Number of particles
Avogadro’s constant
But, Avogadro’s constant = 6.02 x 1023
Combining the two expressions:
Reacting mass = Number of particles
Molar mass 6.02 x 1023

CALCULATIONS
1. What is the mass of 2.7 mole of aluminium (Al=27)?

Solution:
Amount = Reacting mass
Molar mass
Reacting mass = Amount x Molar mass
= 2.7mole x 27 gmol-1 = 72.9g.

2. What is the number of oxygen atoms in 32g of the gas (O=16, NA = 6.02 x 1023)?
Solution:
Reacting mass= Number of atoms
Molar mass 6.02 x 1023
Number of atoms = Reacting mass x 6.02 x 1023
Molar mass
Molar mass of O2 = 16x2 =32gmol-1
Number of atoms = 32g x 6.02 x 1023
32gmol-1
= 6.02 x 1023
The number of oxygen atoms is 6.02 x 1023

EVALUATION
1. Define the molar volume of a gas
2. How many molecules are contained in 1.12dm3 of hydrogen gas at s.t.p?

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PERCENTAGE OF AN ELEMENT IN A COMPOUND
The percentage composition of an atom in a compound is the amount of the atom expressed in
percentage.
Percentage of an element in a compound = Mass of element in the compound x 100
Molar mass of compound 1
CALCULATIONS
1. What is the percentage by mass of nitrogen in NH4NO3 ( H=1, N=14, 0=16)?
Solution:
Molar mass of NH4NO3 = 14x2 + 1x4 + 16x3 = 80gmol-1
Percentage by mass of N2 = Mass of N2 x 100
Molar mass of NH4NO3 1
= 28 x 100= 35%
80 1

2. Calculate the percentage by mass of water of crystallization in MgSO4.7H2O

(Mg=24, S=32, 0=16, H=1)
Solution:
Molar mass of MgSO4.7H20 = 24 + 32 + 16x4 + 9(2+16) = 246gmol-1
7 moles of water of crystallization = 126g
Percentage by mass of water = Mass of H2O x 100
Molar mass of MgSO4.7H2O 1
= 126g x 100
246gmol-11
= 51.2%

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What is the number of molecules in 6.4g of SO2 (NA = 6.02 X 1023)?
2. What is the volume in cm3 of 2.2g of CO2 at s.t.p ( C=12, O=16)?
3. Determine the percentage by mass of oxygen in Al2(SO4).2H2O.( Al=27, S=32, O=16, H=1)

READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by O. Y Ababio, Pg 28-31

THEORY
1. Calculate the actual number of atoms contained in 2.8dm3 of chlorine (Molar volume of gas =
22.4dm3, NA = 6.02 X 1023)
2. How many moles are there in 10g of iron (II) tetraoxosulphate (VI)?

Page 4
WEEK TWO DATE---------------
TOPIC: WRITNG AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Chemical equations are representation of chemical reactions in terms of the symbols and formulae of the
elements and compounds involved. In a chemical equation, the reactants are always written on the left
hand side while the products are written on the right hand side. For instance, if A and B combines
together to give C and D, the equation of the reaction is written as:
A+B → C+D
Reactants Products

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

All equations must be balanced in order to comply with the law of conservation of matter. Equations are
balanced through the use of coefficients in front of the formula and not by changing the subscript
numbers within the formulae of the products.

Example 1: Write a balanced equation for the combustion of ammonia gas in air.
Solution:
Step I: Write the reactants and predict the products
NH3(g) + O2(g) → NO(g) + H2O(g)
Step II: The equation is not balanced. Therefore the equation can be balanced by placing the right
coefficient in front of each molecule to balance the number of atoms. Thus, the balanced equation is:
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)

Example 2: Write a balanced equation for the combustion of ethane in oxygen.

Solution:
The general formula for the combustion of Alkanes is
CxHy + (x + y/4) O2 → XCO2 + y/2 H2O
The molecular formula for ethane is C2H6, so, x=2 and y=6
Substituting x and y into the formula above gives
C2H6 + (2 + 6/4) O2 →2CO2 + 6/2 H2O
C2H6 + 7/2 O2 →2CO2 + 3H2O
The equation is balanced. However, equations are written with whole number coefficients. By
multiplying the entire equation by 2, we get
2C2H6 + 7O2 →4CO2 + 6H2O

IMPORTANCE OF BALANCED CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

1. It gives us information on the product that can be formed from the combination of two or more
reactants in a particular reaction.
2. It tells us the physical states of the reactants and products.
3. It indicates the direction of the reaction and whether the reaction is reversible.
4. It tells us the stoichiometry of the reaction (i.e. the relationship between the amount of reactants and
products) in terms of mole ratio of the reactants and products involved.

Consider the table below:

Equation Mole ratio/ Mass ratio
2HCl + CaCO3→ CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 2 mole of HCl and 1 mole of CaCO3produced 1
mole of CaCl2, 1 mole of H2Oand 1 moles of

Page 5
 CO2
2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2 73g of HCl and 100g of CaCO3produced 111g
of CaCl2, 18g of H2Oand 44g of CO2

READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by O.Y. Ababio, pg 36-40

THEORY
1. Balance the following equation: H2SO4 + Na2CO3 → Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O
2. State any two information provided by the equation of a chemical reaction.

WEEK THREE DATE-------------

TOPIC: BASIC STOICHIOMETRY OF REACTIONS
CONTENT
 Calculation of masses of reactants and products
 Calculation of volume of reacting gases

STOICHIOMETRY OF REACTIONS
The calculation of the amounts (generally measured in moles or grams) of reactants and products
involved in a chemical reaction is known as stoichiometry of reaction. In other words, the mole ratio in
which reactants combine and products are formed gives the stoichiometry of the reactions.
From the stoichiometry of a given balanced chemical equation, the mass or volume of the reactant needed
for the reaction or products formed can be calculated.

CALCULATION OF MASSES OF REACTANTS AND PRODUCTS

1. Calculate the number of moles of CaCl2 that can be obtained from 25g of limestone [CaCO3] in the
presence of excess hydrochloric acid.
Solution:
The equation for the reaction is:
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl → CaCl2(s) + H20(l) + CO2(g)
Number of moles = Reacting mass
Molar mass
Molar mass of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + 16x3 = 100gmol-1
Number of moles of CaCO3 = 25g = 0.25 mole
-1
100gmol
From the equation of reaction,
1 mole CaCO3 yields 1 mole CaCl2
Therefore, 0.25 mole CaCO3 yielded 0.25 mole CaCl2.

EVALUATION
1. What does the term ‘Stoichiometry of reaction’ mean?
2. Ethane [C2H6] burns completely in oxygen. what amount in moles of CO2 will be produced when 6.0g
of ethane are completely burnt in oxygen

CALCULATION OF VOLUME OF REACTING GASES

1. In an experiment, 10cm3 of ethene [C2H4] was burnt in 50cm3 of oxygen.

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 A. Which gas was supplied in excess? Calculate the volume of the excess gas remaining at the end of
the reaction.
B. Calculate the volume of CO2 gas produced

Solution:
The equation for the reaction is:
C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)

From the equation,

A.1 mole of ethene reacts with 3mole of oxygen
1 volume of ethene reacts with 3 volumes of oxygen
10cm3of ethene will react with 30cm3 of oxygen
Since 50cm3 of oxygen was supplied, oxygen was in excess
Hence volume of the excess gas = initial volume – volume used up = 50-30 = 20cm3

B.1 volume of ethene produces 2 volumes of CO2

10 cm3 of ethene will produce 20cm3 of CO2
Therefore, 20cm3 of CO2 was produced

2. 20cm3 of CO was mixed and sparked with 200cm3 of air containing 21% of O2. If all the volumes
are measured at s.t.p, calculate the total volume of the resulting gases.
Solution:
In 200cm3 of air,
Volume of O2 = 21 x 200cm3 = 42cm3
100
Volume of N2 and rare gases = 200-42 = 158cm3
The equation for the reaction is:
2CO(g) + O2(g) → 2CO2(g)

Volume ratio 2 : 1 : 2
Before sparking 20cm3 42cm3
Reacting volume 20cm3 10cm3
After sparking 32cm3 20cm3
Volume of resulting gases = 32 + 20 + 158 = 210cm3

ACTIVITIES
1. Find the volume of oxygen produced by 1 mole of KClO3 at s.t.p in the following reaction:
2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 302(g)
2. Balance the following equations: (a) Cu2S(s) +O2(g) → Cu2O(s) + SO2(g)
(b) C(s) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + H2(g)
THEORY
1. Calculate the number of molecules of CO2produced when 10g of CaCO3 is treated with 100cm3 of
0.20moldm-3 HCl.
2. Calculate the volume of nitrogen that will be producedat s.t.p from the decomposition of 9.60g
ammonium dioxonitrate(iii), NH4NO2.

Page 7
WEEK FOUR DATE-----------
--
TOPIC: EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE
Empirical formula is the formula which shows the simplest whole number ratios of atoms present in a
compound while molecular formula is the formula which shows the actual number of each kind of atoms
present in the molecule. The molecular formula of a compound is a whole number multiple of its
empirical formulae.

CALCULATIONS
1. An organic compound on analysis yielded 2.04g carbon, 0.34g hydrogen and 2.73g oxygen.
A. Calculate the empirical formula.
B. If the relative molecular mass of the compound is 60. Calculate its molecular formula.
Solution:
Elements C H O
Reacting mass 2.04 0.34 2.73
Mole ratio = Reacting mass = 2.04 : 0.34 : 2.73
Atomic mass 12 1 16
= 0.17 : 0.34 : 0.17
Dividing through by the 0.17 : 0.34 : 0.17
Smallest value 0.17 0.17 0.17
Whole number ratio 1 : 2 : 1
The empirical formula = CH2O
Relative molecular mass of the compound = 60
Let the molecular formula = (CH2O)n
(CH2O)n = 60
(12 + 1x2 +16)n = 60
30n = 60
n = 60/30 = 2
Therefore, the molecular formula is (CH2O)2 = C2H4O2
Calculate the empirical formula of an organic compound containing 81.8% carbon and 18.2% hydrogen
Solution:
Element C H
% Composition by mass 81.8 18.2
Mole ratio = % by mass = 81.8 : 18.2
Atomic mass 12 1
= 6.82 : 18.2
Dividing through by the 6.82 : 18.2
smallest value 6.82 6.82
Whole number ratio 1 : 2.67
Since the ratio is not completely whole, we continue to multiple to obtain the lowest multiple that is close
to a whole number i.e.
1:2.67, 2:5.34, 3:8.01, 4:10.65, 5:13.35, etC. 3:8.01 is close to whole number.
Therefore, the empirical formula is C3H8
Page 8
GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION
1. An organic compound has the empirical formula CH2. If its molecular mass is 42gmol-1, what is
the molecular formula?
2. Determine the relative molecular mass of calcium trioxocarbonate (v).
3. Define the term radical.
4. Write the formula of the following compounds
A. Mercury (i) dioxonitrate (iii)
B.Sodium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (IV)
C. Oxochlorate (I) acid

READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary School by O. Y. Ababio, Pg 31-32

THEORY
1. Calculate the % by mass of water of crystallization in Al2(SO4)3.9H2O
2. Two compounds X and Y have the same % composition by mass 92.3% carbon and 7.7% hydrogen.
Calculate the:
A. Empirical formula of X and Y
B. Molecular formula of each compound if the molar mass of X is 26gmol-1 and Y is 78gmol-1.

Page 9
WEEK FIVE DATE------------------
TOPIC: LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
CONTENT
 Law of conservation of mass
 Law of definite proportion or constant composition
 Law of multiple proportion

LAW OF CONSERVATION MASS

This law states that during chemical reactions, matter can neither be created nor destroyed but changes
from one form to another.

EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY THE LAW

AIM: To verify the law of conservation of mass
THEORY: The equation of the reaction chosen for study is as follows:
HCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)
White ppt

APPARATUS: Weighing balance, conical flask, small test tube, string cork stopper.
REAGENTS NEEDED: Solutions of HCl and AgNO3 stored in two different reagent bottles.
METHOD: The dilute HCl is poured into a conical flask. The small test tube is filled with
AgNO3solution and by means of a string tied around the neck of the test tube, it is suspended inside the
conical flask containing the acid in such a way that the two solutions do not mix together. The conical
flask and its content are weighed using a weighing balance and the result recordeD. The two solutions
are mixed together by swirling the conical flask and the weight of the conical flask and its content is taken
again.

DIAGRAM

RESULT: After mixing the two solutions, a white precipitate of AgCl was formed indicating that a
chemical reaction has taken place.

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DISCUSSION: The masses of the conical flask and its content before and after the reaction remained the
same indicating that the mass of the reactants equal that of the products.

CONCLUSION: Since the two masses obtained are equal, it confirms that matter was not created nor
destroyed during the chemical reaction.

LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTION OR CONSTANT COMPOSITION

The law states that all pure samples of a particular chemical compound contain the same elements
combined in the same proportion by mass.

EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY THE LAW

AIM: To verify the law of definite proportion

APPARATUS: Crucible, test tube, combustion boats, combustion tube, weighing balance, Bunsen
burner, U-tube and two retort stands with clamps.

REAGENTS NEEDED: CuCO3 crystals, Na2CO3 solution, Cu(NO3)2 solution, dry hydrogen gas and
CaCl2 crystals.

METHOD: Two samples of black CuO are prepared using different methods. Sample A is prepared by
placing the CuCO3 crystals in a crucible and heating it strongly until it decomposes into black CuO. The
equation for the reaction is:
CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + CO2(g)

Sample B is prepared by reacting a solution of Na2CO3 in a test tube with a solution of Cu(NO3)2. A
green precipitate of CuCO3 is formeD. This is filtered off and then heated strongly in a crucible to obtain
black CuO. The equation for the reaction is:
Na2CO3(aq) + Cu(NO3)2 → CuCO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
CuCO3(s) → CuO(s) + CO2(g)
The two samples of black CuO are placed in two dried and weighed combustion boats labelled A and B
and weighed again. These boats are then placed in a combustion tube and heateD. A stream of dry
hydrogen is passed through the combustion tube to reduce the CuO to metallic Cu. After heating for
sometimes, a reddish-brown residue shows that all the CuO has been reduced to metallic copper. The
flame is removed but the passing in hydrogen gas continues to prevent the re-oxidation of the hot copper
residues by atmospheric oxygen. Any water formed during the reaction is absorbed by the fused CaCl2
in the adjacent U-tube. When the boat is cool, the weight of it is taken. From the results, the percentage
of Cu in each sample is calculated.

DIAGRAM:

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RESULT: Assuming the following result was obtained:
Sample A B
Mass of boat 3.16g 3.31g
Mass of boat + CuO 5.15g 5.29g
Mass of boat + Cu 4.76g 4.90g
Mass of CuO = (ii) – (i) 1.99g 1.98g
Mass of Cu = (iii) –(i) 1.60g 1.59g
% of Cu in CuO 1.60 x 100 1.59 x 100
1.99 1 1.98 1
80.40% 80.30%
Therefore, % of Cu in CuO 80% 80%
% of O2 in CuO 20% 20%

DISCUSSION: The % of Cu residue in the two samples is approximately 80% irrespective of the method
of preparation of the CuO samples.

CONCLUSION: In pure CuO, Cu and O are always present in a definite proportion by mass of
approximately 4:1.

LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS

This states that if two elements combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one of the
elements which separately combine with fixed mass of the other element are in simple ratio

EXPERIMENT TO VERIFY THE LAW

AIM: To verify the law of multiple proportions

APPARATUS: Combustion boats, combustion tube, weighing balance, Bunsen burner, U-tube and retort
stand with clamp

REAGENTS NEEDED: Cu2O crystals, CuO crystals, dry hydrogen gas and calcium chloride crystals

METHOD: The two boats are dried and weighed. Cu2O is placed in one and labelled A and CuO is
placed in the other and labelled B. The two boats are weighed again and placed in a combustion tube to
reduce the oxides to copper by passing hydrogen gas into the combustion tube. When the samples are
cooled, the residues obtained are weighed.

RESULT: Assuming the following result was obtained:

Sample Cu2O CuO
Mass of sample (oxide) 3.04g 1.91g
Mass of Cu residue 2.55g 1.35g
Mass of oxygen removed from oxide 0.49g 0.53g

CALCULATION: Calculating the various masses of copper which combine separately with fixed mass
(say 1g of oxygen)
For Cu2O,
0.49g of O2 combines with 2.55g of Cu
1.0g of O2 will combine with Xg of Cu
Page 12
Xg of Cu = 2.55g x 1.0g
0.49g
= 5.20g
For CuO,
0.53g of O2 combines with 1.38g of Cu
1.0g of O2 will combine with Xg of Cu
Xg of Cu = 1.38g x 1.0g
0.53g
= 2.60g
Oxides of copper Cu2O CuO
Mass of copper 5.20g 2.60g
Ratio of copper 2 : 1

CONCLUSION: The masses of copper which combines with a fixed mass of oxygen in Cu2O and CuO
are in simple ratio of 2:1.

WEEK SIX AND SEVEN DATE-----------------

TOPIC: CHEMICAL COMBINATIONS
CONTENT
 Electrovalent (ionic) bond
 Covalent bond
 Dative bond
 Hydrogen bond
 Metallic bond

ELECTROVALENT (IONIC) BOND

Electrovalent bond is characterised by transfer of electrons from metallic atoms to non-metallic atoms
during reaction. The metallic atom that donates electron becomes positively charged while the non-
metallic atom that accepts electron becomes negatively charged. The strong electrostatic attraction that
holds the oppositely charged ions together is called ionic bond.

ELECTRON DOT REPRESENTATION OF FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

Formation of sodium chloride

Formation of calcium oxide

Page 13
PROPERTIES OF SOME IONIC COMPOUNDS
1. They are solids at room temperature.
2. They contain oppositely charged ions.
3. They readily dissolve in water and other polar solvents like ethanol.
4. They have high melting and boiling points
5. They are good conductors of electricity when in molten or in aqueous form.

EVALUATION
1. How is an ionic compound formed?
2. State the properties of ionic compound
COVALENT BOND
This involves the sharing of a paired of electron between two reacting atoms. The shared electrons are
each contributed by the reacting atoms and are called shared pair. A shared pair of electron in covalent
bond is represented by a horizontal line
(----) between the two atoms

ELECTRON DOT REPRESENTATION OF FORMATION OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Formation of hydrogen molecule

Formation of carbon (iv) oxide

PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS

1. They consist of molecules with definite shape.
2. They are gases or volatile liquids.
3. They readily dissolve is non-polar organic solvents
4. They have low melting and boiling points
5. They do not conduct electricity because the molecules do not contain charged particles.

EVALUATION
1. What is covalent bond?
2. Outline the properties of covalent compounds

COORDINATE COVALENT (DATIVE) BOND

In coordinate covalent bond, the shared pair of electrons is supplied by one of the combining atoms.
Coordinate covalent bond is often formed in molecules that have a lone pair of electrons, i.e. a pair of
electron not directly concerned in an existing bond.

ELECTRON DOT REPRESENTATION TO SHOW FORMATION OF DATIVE BOND

Formation of hydroxonium ion (H3O+)
Page 14
Formation of Ammonium ion (NH4+)

Compounds containing coordinate covalent bond are similar in properties to purely covalent compounds.
Both do not conduct electricity, but the presence of coordinate covalent bond tends to make a compound
less volatile.

HYDROGEN BOND
Hydrogen bond is a dipole-dipole intermolecular force of attraction which exists when hydrogen is
covalently bonded to a highly electronegative element of small atomic size. The electronegative element
can be N, O, F, Cl, Br or I.

The highly electronegative element has very strong affinity for electrons. Hence, they attract the shared
pair of electrons in the covalent bond toward themselves, resulting in the formation of a dipole which
leaves a partial positive charge on the hydrogen atom and a partial negative charge on the electronegative
atom. An electrostatic attraction between two dipoles is set up when the positive pole of one molecule
attracts the negative pole of the other. This attractive force is known as hydrogen bond.

IMPORTANCE OF HYDROGEN BOND

It accounts for the solubilities of some compounds containing O, N and F in certain hydrogen containing
solvents such as water
The crystalline shape of solid water (ice) is due to hydrogen bond.

EVALUATION
1. Define hydrogen bond
2. State two importance of hydrogen bond.

METALLIC BOND
Metal atoms are held together in solid crystal lattice by metallic bond. each metallic atom contributes its
outer (valence) electron to the electron cloud, thus becoming positively charged. The resulting positively
charged metallic ions tend to repel each other but are held together by the moving electron cloud and
overlapping residual electron orbits. Thus, a metallic bond is a force of attraction between the positive
metal ions and the free mobile electrons.

VAN DER WAALS’ FORCES

Page 15
The attractive forces which make it possible for non-polar molecules like nitrogen and CO2 molecules to
form liquid and solid is called van der Waals’ force. This force though very weak when compared to ionic
and covalent bond is important in the liquefaction of gases and in the formation of molecular lattices as in
iodine and naphthalene crystals.

WEEK EIGHT DATE-----------------

TOPIC: KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
CONTENT
 States of matter
 Change of state: melting, boiling, evaporation, condensation and freezing
 Kinetic theory of gases
 Phemomena supporting kinetic theory of matter

STATES OF MATTER
The three states of matter: solid, liquid and gaseous states can be distinguished by the motion of particles
they are made of and the attractive force between their particles.
SOLID LIQUID GASES
Have definite shape and volume Have no definite shape but Have no definite shape and
definite volume volume
Very dense Less dense Least dense
Incompressible Incompressible Compressible
Fixed mass Fixed mass Fixed mass
Particle vibrate and rotate about Particles vibrate and move about Particles move about constantly
a fixed point within a restricted space at great speed and at random

CHANGE OF STATE
MELTING
Melting is the physical process where a substance changes from a solid to a liquid. When a solid is
heated, the particles acquire greater kinetic energy and move violently. A point is reached when the forces
of vibration overcome the cohesive forces holding the solid particles together and the crystalline structure
collapses. The particles are no longer held in fixed positions but are free to move about and the liquid
state is reached. The temperature at which this occurs is called the melting point of the solid.

BOILING
When a liquid is heated, the rate of evaporation increases and the value of the saturated vapour pressure
equal the prevailing atmospheric pressure. When this happens, the liquid is said to boil and the
temperature at which this happen is known as the boiling point of the liquid.

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The boiling point of a liquid change with change in atmospheric pressure. If the pressure is raised, the
boiling point will increase and if the pressure is lowered the boiling point will decrease. Also, the
presence of impurities increases the boiling point of a liquid.
EVAPORATION
Evaporation is the process of vapourization of liquids at all temperatures. When the surface of a liquid is
exposed, the molecules near the surface of the liquid will acquire extra kinetic energy, large enough to
enable them break away from the cohesive force binding them to the neighbouring particles. Once free,
they escape from the liquid surface to become molecules in the vapour state.

Evaporation results in decrease in the volume of liquid and lowering the temperature of the liquid,
therefore it causes cooling. Also, it occurs at all temperature but increases with increase in temperature. In
addition, it is slower in electrovalent liquids than in covalent liquids.

DIFFERENCES BETWWEEN EVAPORATION AND BOILING

EVAPORATION BOILING
Takes place at the surface of the liquid Involves the entire volume of the liquid
Takes place at all temperature Takes place at a fixed temperature

CONDENSATION AND FREEZING

Condensation is a process whereby a vapour loses some of its kinetic energy to a colder body and changes
into the liquid state.
When a liquid cools, it loses heat energy to its surroundings, causing its temperature to drop. If the
cooling continues, the temperature of the liquid keeps dropping until it reaches the freezing point of the
liquid. At this temperature, the liquid changes into solid.

EVALUATION
1. Describe the melting process of a solid.
2. State two differences between evaporation and boiling.

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

The theorypostulates the following for an ideal or perfect gas:
Gas molecules are in constant, rapid, straight motion, colliding with one another and with the walls of the
container.

The collision of gas molecules is perfectly elastic.

The total volume of the gas molecule is negligible compared to the volume of the container.
The force of attraction between the gas molecules is negligible.
The average kinetic energy of the molecule is a measure of the temperature of the gas molecules.

PHENOMENA SUPPORTING THE KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

Brownian motion: This is the constant, irregular movement of particles in a liquid or gas. It shows that
gas molecules are in constant motion.
Diffusion: Diffusion is the movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to lower
concentration. Diffusion is common in gases and it results from the random movement of particles of a
gas.

ACTIVITIES
1. A bottle of milk is taken out of the refrigerator and placed on the table. Droplets of water are
noticed on the surface of the milk bottle. Explain the observation
2. State two phenomena that support the kinetic theory of gases.

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WEEK NINE DATE-----------
--
TOPIC: GAS LAWS
CONTENT
 Boyle’s law
 Charles’ law
 Ideal gas equation
 Dalton’s law of partial pressure

BOYLE’S LAW
It states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the pressure provided the
temperature remains constant.

Mathematically,
V α 1/P
V = k/P
PV = k
Hence, P1V1 = P2V2
Boyle’s law can be represented graphically as shown below.

The graph shows that if the pressure is doubled, the volume is reduced to half its former value and if it is
halved, the volume is doubled.

EXPLANATION OF BOYLE’S LAW USING THE KINETIC THEORY

When the volume of fixed mass of gas is decreased, the molecules of the gas will collide with each other
more rapidly. This gives rise to an increase in pressure. However, if molecules are farther apart the
number of collisions for unit time decreases, resulting in a decrease in pressure.
CHARLES’ LAW
Charles’ law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to
its temperature in the Kelvin scale.
Mathematically,
VαT
V = k/T
V=k
T
Hence, V1 = V2
T1 T2
The graphical representation of Charles’ law is as shown below:

Page 18
EXPLANATION OF CHARLES’ LAW USING THE KINETIC THEORY
When a given gas is heated at constant pressure, the molecules acquire more kinetic energy and move
faster. They collide with one another and with the walls of the container more frequently. To maintain the
same number of collisions on the walls of container (i.e. keep the pressure constant) the volume of the gas
increases.

CALCULATIONS BASED ON BOYLE’S AND CHARLES’ LAW

1. 200cm3 of a gas has a pressure of 510mmHg. What will be its volume if pressure in increased to
780mmHg, assuming there is no change in temperature?
Solution:
V1 = 200cm3, P1 = 510mmHg, P2 = 780mmHg V2 = ?
Using the expression for Boyle’s law:
P1V1 = P2V2
V2 = P1V1 = 510mmHg x 200cm3 = 130.769 = 131 cm3
P2 780mmHg

2. A certain mass of a gas occupies 300cm3 at 35oC. At what temperature will it have its volume reduced
by half assuming its pressure remains constant?
Solution:
V1 = 300cm3, T1 = 35oC = (35 + 273)K = 308K, V2 = V1/2 = 300/2 = 150cm3, T2 = ?
Using the formula for Charles’ law
V1 = V2
T1 T2
T2 = V2T1 = 150cm3 x 308K = 154K
V1 300cm3

EVALUATION
1. State Boyle’s law
2. Explain Charles’ law using the kinetic theory

GENERAL GAS EQUATION

Boyle’s and Charles’ laws are combined into a single expression known as the general gas equation
which can be expressed mathematically as
P1V1 = P2V2
T1T2

IDEAL GAS EQUATION

This equation states that for an ideal gas PV/T is a constant.
That is, PV = R (R = molar gas constant)
T
PV = RT
That is, for n mole of a gas, the equation becomes
PV = nRT

CALCULATIONS
1. What is the volume at s.t.p of a fixed mass of a gas that occupies 700cm3 at 25oC and 0.84 x 105 Nm-
2
pressure?
Solution:
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 T1 = 273K, P1 = 1.01 x 105Nm-2, T2 = 25oC = (25 + 273) = 298K, P2 = 0.84 x 105Nm-2,
V2 = 700cm3, V1 =?
Using the general gas equation
P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2
V1 = P2V2T1 = 0.84 x 105Nm-2 x 700cm3 x 273K = 533.337 =533cm3
P1T2 1.01 x 105Nm-2 x 298K

2. Calculate the number of moles present in a certain mass of gas occupying 6.5dm3 at 3atm and 15oC
(R = 0.082atmdm3K-1mol-1)
Solution:
V = 6.5dm3, P = 3atm, T = 15oC = (15 + 273)K = 288K, n =?
Using PV = nRT
n = PV = 3atm x 6.5dm3= 0.8257
RT 0.082atmdm3K-1mol-1 x 288K
Number of moles = 0.83 mole

DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

This law state that in a mixture of gases which do not react chemically together, the total pressure exerted
by the mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of the individual gases that make up the
mixture.
Mathematically, the law can be expressed as:
Ptotal = PA + PB +PC........Pn

Where Ptotal is the total pressure of the mixture and PA, PB, PC are the partial pressure exerted separately
by the individual gases A, B, C that make up the mixture.
The pressure each constituent gas exerts is called partial pressure and is expressed as
Partial pressure of gas A (PA) = Number of moles of gas A x Ptotal
Total number of moles of gas in mixture

That is, PA = nA x Ptotal

nA + nB + nC
If the gas is collected over water, it is likely to be saturated with water vapour and the total pressure
becomes
Ptotal = Pgas + Pwater vapour
Pgas = Ptotal – Pwater vapour

CALCULATION ON THE LAW

A gaseous mixture containing 64g of O2 and 70g of N2 exerts a total pressure of 1.8oatm. What is the
partial pressure exerted by oxygen in the mixture?
Solution:
Molar mass of O2 = 16 x 2 = 32gmol-1
Molar mass of N2 = 14 x 2 = 28gmol-1
Number of mole of O2 = 64g = 2.0mole
32gmol-1
Number of mole of O2 = 70g = 2.5mole
28gmol-1
Total number of moles of gases in mixture = 2.0 + 2.5 = 4.5 mole
Partial pressure of O2 = 2.0 x 1.80 = 0.80atm
4.5

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WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Kelvin temperature can be converted into temperature by A.oC = K-273 B. K + 273 C.oC + 273/K D.
K + 273/oC
2. The pressure exerted by a gas is a result of the
A. continuous random motion of its particle
B. bombardment of the walls of the container by its molecules
C. expansion of the gas molecules
D. collision between the gas molecules
3. From the ideal gas equation, PV = nRT, the unit of n is A. atmdm3B. atmdm3/K C. mole D. K/mole
4. What will be the new volume (V) if the new pressure is halved and the initial pressure remain the
same the sameA. 2P1V1 = P2V2B. P1V1 = 2P2V2C. P1V1/2= P2V2/2 D. P1V1 = P2V2/2
5. A fixed mass of gas of volume 546cm3 at 0oC is heated at constant pressure. What is the volume of
the gas at 2oC? A. 550cm3B. 560cm3C. 570cm3D. 580cm3

THEORY
1. A given mass of nitrogen is 0.12dm3 at 60oC and 1.01 x 105Nm-2. Find its pressure at the same
temperature if its volume is changed to 0.24dm3
2. 272cm3 of CO2 was collected over water at 15oC and 782mmHg pressure. Calculate the volume of
dry gas at s.t.p (saturated vapour pressure of water at 15oC is 12mmHg)
WEEK TEN DATE-----------
--
TOPIC: GAS LAWS
CONTENT
 Avogadro’s law
 Gay lussac’s law of combining volumes
 Graham’s law of diffusion

AVOGADRO’S LAW
This law states that equal volume of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same
number of molecules. This means that 1 mole of any gas at s.t.p has a volume of 22.4dm3.

GAY LUSSAC’S LAW OF COMBINING VOLUMES

It states that when gases react they do so in volumes which are simple ratios to one another and to the
volumes of the products if gaseous, provided that the temperature and pressure remain constant.

CALCULATION ON THE LAW

Calculate the volume of oxygen required to burn 500cm3 of methane completely.
Solution:
The equation for the reaction is:
2CH4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
By Gay Lussac’s law,
2 volumes of CH4 requires 3 volumes of O2 for complete combustion
Therefore, 2cm3 of CH4 requires 3cm3 of O2
500cm3 of CH4 will require Xcm3 of O2
Xcm3 of O2 = 500cm3 x 3cm3 = 750cm3
2cm3
3
Thus, 750cm of O2 is required

EVALUATION
1. State the Gay Lussac’s law of combining volumes

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2. 40cm3 of hydrogen was sparked with 160cm3 of oxygen at 100oC and 1atm. Determine the volume of
oxygen left after the reaction.

GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION

It states that the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its density at
constant temperature and pressure.
Mathematically,
R α 1/√d
R = k/√d where k is a constant
Comparing the rate of diffusion of two gases:
R1 = √d2
R2 √d1
In terms of relative molecular mass, M
R α 1/√M
For two gases,
R1 = √M2
R2 √M1
But rate of diffusion is reciprocal of time, R =1/t
That is,
R1 = t 2
R2 t1
From the inverse relationship we can deduce that the less dense a gas is, the higher the rate of diffusion
and vice versa.
CALCULATION
1. A given volume of SO2 diffuses in 60 seconds. How long will it take the same volume of CH4 to
diffuse under the same condition (SO2 = 64, CH4 = 16)
Solution:
Using the expression:
t1= √M2
t2 √M1
t2 = √M2 x t1 = √16 x 60seconds = 30seconds
√M1 √64

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISION
1. State Graham’s law of diffusion
2. Under the same condition of temperature and pressure, hydrogen diffuses 8 times as fast as gas Y.
Calculate the relative molecular mass of Y.
3. State the following rule/principle: (a) Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity (b) Aufbau principle
4. Write the electronic configuration of (a) oxide ion, (b) Aluminium ion, (c) potassium (d) phosphorus.

READING ASSIGNMENT
New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary School by O.Y. Ababio, Pg 86-92

WEEKENDASSIGNMENT
1. 400cm3 of a gas X diffuses through a porous pot in 2 minutes. Calculate the rate at which X diffuses.
A. 6.3cm3s-1B. 20cm3s-1 C. 200cm3s-1D. 3.33cm3s-1#
2. The relationship between the density (d) of a gas and the rate at which the gas diffuses is A. R = kd
B. R= k/√d C. R = k√d D. k/d
3. Calculate the minimum volume of oxygen required for the complete combustion of a mixture of
20cm3 CO and 20cm3 of H2. A. 10cm3B. 20cm3C. 40cm3D. 60cm3
4. If sulphur (iv) oxide and methane (CH4) are released at the same time at opposite ends of a tube, the
rate of diffusion will be in the ratio A. 2:1 B. 4:1 C. 1:4 D. 1:2
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5. ‘Equal volume of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain same number of molecules’
is a state of which law A. Avogadro’s law B. Boyle’s lawC. Charles’ law D. Chemical law

THEORY
1. Arrange the following gases in order of increasing rate of diffusion: CO, SO2, H2S,NO2 and O2.
2. The vapour densities of O2 and Cl2 are 16 and 36 respectively. If 60cm3 of O2 diffuses through a
porous partition in 14 seconds, how long will it take 1000cm3 of Cl2 to diffuse through the same
partition?

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