MEMORY

Presented by:
§ Muneeb Ullah Hafeez
§ Shazia Abid
§ Raheel Arshad
§ Arooj Fatima
§ Eman Fatima
§ Tahir Nazeer
§ Muhammad Umair
 OBJECTIVES
2018--2019

q By the end of this presentation, students will be able to :

Ø Define memory,its stages, formation and its different types.

Ø Explain what is forgetting and its reason.

Ø Clarify the measurements of memory and the different ways to improve it .

Ø Highlight the influential studies and theories bound to memory.

Ø Identify the relation between memory and sickness.

Ø Understand the applications of memory in nursing.

§ Memory
§ Stages of Memory
§ Formation of Memory
§ Durartion
§ Types
§ Forgetting
§ Why Do We fForget ?
§ Measurment of Memory
§ Ways to Improve Memory
§ Influential Studies and Theories of Memory
§ Theories of Memory
§ Memeory in Relation to Sickness
§ Memeory in Nursing
 Memory
2018--2019

o Memory simply can be defined as recalling the material in present learnt in

the past .
ü McDougall “Memory means imagining events as experiences in the past
and recognizing them as belonging to one’s own past experiences”
ü Higard and Atkinson “Memories is to show in present responses signs of
earlier learned responses”
ü Woodworth “Memory is related to remembering of previously learned
object”
ü Eysenck “Memory is the ability of the organism to store information from
earlier learning process (experience , retention) and reproduce that
information in answer to specific stimuli”
 Stages of memory
2018--2019

q Process of memory take place into four stages :

v Learning

v Retention

v Recall

v Recognition
 Stages of memory
2018--2019

q Learning:
§ It is the first stage in which the material is learnt. For learning the material
different type of method are used.
ü Learnt By Exercise
ü Learnt By Insight
ü Learnt By Condition
q Retention:
§ After learning the memory is retained in the form of traces in the mind. These
traces maybe:
ü Permanent Traces
ü Temporary Traces
 Stages of memory
2018--2019

q Recall:
Ø Reproduction of learnt material is call recall. The learnt material is recall in
the absence of presentation material Retained material is recalled in the form
of :
ü Orally
ü Verbally

q Recognition:
Ø Last stage in which learnt material is presented mixed with the new material
and the person has to identify the learnt material. It is found that Recognition
is more sensitive than Recall. The material which is seem to be forgotten is
usually get identify in Recognition.
 Formation of Memory
2018--2019

q Researchers have long believed that memories form due to changes in brain
neurons (nerve cells). Our understanding today is that memories are created
through the connections that exist between these neurons—either by
strengthening these connections or through the growth of new connections.

q The term memory covers three important aspects of information processing:

 Memory Encoding
2018--2019

q When information comes into our memory system (from sensory input), it
needs to be changed into a form that the system can cope with so that it can
be stored.
q There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed):

1. Visual (picture)

2. Acoustic (sound)

3. Semantic (meaning)
 Memory Storage
2018--2019

q This concerns the nature of memory stores, i.e., where the information is
stored, how long the memory lasts (duration), how much can be stored at any
time (capacity) and what kind of information is held.

q The way we store information affects the way we retrieve it. There has been
a significant amount of research regarding the differences between Short
Term Memory (STM ) and Long Term Memory (LTM).
 Memory Retrieval
2018--2019

q This refers to getting information out of storage. If we can’t remember

something, it may be because we are unable to retrieve it. When we are
asked to retrieve something from memory, the differences between STM and
LTM become very clear.

q STM is stored and retrieved sequentially.

 Duration of memory
2018--2019

q Some memories are very brief, just seconds long, and allow people to take in
sensory information about the world.

q Short-term memories are a bit longer and last about 20 to 30 seconds. These
memories mostly consist of the information people are currently focusing on
and thinking about.

q Some memories are capable of enduring much longer—lasting days, weeks,

months, or even decades. Most of these long-term memories lie outside of
immediate awareness but can be drawn into consciousness when needed.
 Why Do We Remember Painful Memories?
2018--2019

q Have you ever noticed that many times, painful memories tend to hang on for

long periods of time? Research suggests that this is because of increased

biological arousal during the negative experience, which increases the

longevity of that memory

 Types of Memory
2018--2019

v Initially proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, this

theory outlines three separate stages or types of memory: sensory memory,
short-term memory, and long-term memory

qSensory Memory:
v Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory
information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time,
generally for no longer than a half-second for visual information and three or
four seconds for auditory information.
 Types of Memory
2018--2019

qShort-Term Memory

v Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are

currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory
would be referred to as the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory
memories generates information in short-term memory.

v While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to

this information allows it to continue to the next stage: long-term memory.
Most of the information stored in active memory will be kept for
approximately 20 to 30 seconds.
 Types of Memory
2018--2019

qLong-Term Memory:

v Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In

Freudian psychology, long-term memory would be called the preconscious
and unconscious.

v This information is largely outside of our awareness but can be called into
working memory to be used when needed. Some memories are fairly easy to
recall, while others are much more difficult to access.
 Forgetting
2018--2019

Ø Opposite of remembering
Ø Failure to remember material previously learned.
Ø Forgetting typically is a normal phenomenon but it may also be pathological
for example, in amnesia
Ø Forgetting is a crucial aspect of memory, allowing us to prioritize relevant
information and make room for new experiences.
 2018--2019
Causes of Forgetting

ü Depression
ü Lack of sleep
ü Stress
ü Inadequate impression at the time of learning
ü Laps of time
ü Interference
ü Defective mental state
ü Nature of the material learned
ü Methods used to learn
ü Raise in emotion
2018--2019
2018--2019
 q People may differ in their ability to remember and recall knowledge or
events. Therefore assesment of memory is crucial to help individuals
to measure their memory power through the following methods:

ts 01 Recall
me n
sure
e a
M of 02 Recognition

o r y
em 03 RELEARNING
M (SAVING METHOD)

04 RECONSTRUCTION

Learning Method
05
 Recall Method
2018--2019

ü In this method,the participants (students) are asked to learn a task and thereafter the
learnt knowledge is recalled by participants orally or in writing (e.g. essay
writig,recalling a formula).The percentage correct reproduction of the knowledge
shows the memory power of the participant.

Recall is categorized into :

q Free Recall: it allows us to summon up pieces of information without following any
specific order. For example, we may listen to a lecture and afterwards remember a few
important quotes without recalling the order in which they were presented.
q Serial recall: the material is recalled in a very specific order in which it has been
learned. For example,recalling historical events with their chronological time order.

Ø The recall percentage is calculated:

No.of correctly record words

Recall % = x 100
Total no. of words in the list
 Recognition
2018--2019

v In this method, the learnt material is presented to students by mixing with new knowledge and ask
students to identify the learnt knowledge . It is mainly found in multiple choice questions.

Ø For example, students are given a list ‘’A ‘’ of ten words to learn. After a time span , a new list is
prepared ‘’B ‘’ with other ten words that are mixed with the learnt ones previously. Learners are
asked to recognise and tick the ten learnt words from the all 20 words .

ü The memory power of recognition can be calculated:

right words - wrong words

Recogition % = x 100
total number of all list - the number of learnt list

§ For example: a student identified 8 words correct and 2 wrong words .

8-2
Recognition % = x 100 = 60 %
20- 10
 Learning Method
2018--2019

Ø It is a simple method in Ø The amount of time or trials

which subject is given the participant take to learn
some material to learn. completely indicates his level
of memory.

ü For exmple,students are given

20 names of medicaments to ü More the time or trials are
learn .A student takes 7 minutes required by the student
to learn them whereas the second indicates poor memory and
student takes 10 minutes to learn lesser time or trial reflects
them.The first student has better good memory.
memory than the second.
 Reconstruction
2018--2019

v Reonstruction is the
reproduction of the learned
materials. It means rearranging
the parts of an original task,
presented randomly.
v Participants are presented with
v (reorganising the flow of events
whole story parts or a picture of
in a story or rejoining parts of a
a device then those parts are
doll).
detached and mixed.The
participants are asked to
v The correct rearrangement
reconstruct the parts.
of the mixed parts and in a
good timing shows the
strength memory of the
participants.
 2018--2019
Relearning (Saving Method)
q This method was introduced by Ebbinghaus (1885) for measuring the aspect of memory. This
method consists of two stages for assessing the memory:

v The subject (student) is given v After a specified time,again the same

a list of words to learn.The list is given to the student and the
ph

student takes many trials or number of trials is noted to relearn the

as

time to learn the list (e.g 17 list (e.g 9, relearning trials or time
e

01 trials).It is called original (RLT).The saved time to relearn the list

ph
learning trials OLT. in this phase shows the student memory

as
power and the student noticed that it

e
02 was easy than the first time.

OLT-RLT
Sav ing % = x 100 17_9
OLT e.g : Saving % = x 100= 47.O5 %
17
 i v e
e c t
E f f t o
y s
wa ve
p r o
i m y
m o r
me
 Increasing Attention Span
2018--2019
q An individual can't remember something if he has never learned it ,and he can't learn
something _ that is to encode it in your brain_ if you don't pay enough attention.
The use of the senses properly while learning is essential:

Sight Touch
Hearing Smell
Training the eye contact Hearing can be
Some people are Touching things or the
to see the learning items trained to learn when
sensitive to odours and objects of learning
with focus ( how are they focusing on the spoken
can recall an event helps in remembering
written and their words and sentences them . When
when they smell an
meaning) . It will help to and repeating them associating an item with
odour. You can
memorize and learn after writing them . touch and its quality,it
remember better if you
quickly joining sight with will be recalled quickly.
can associate an event
hearing
or object with a smell.
 2018--2019
Chunking Strategy
q Chunking definition is grouping related items together so
that someone can remember them more easily

§ For example,chunking
phone number:three digits,
v Chunking is grouping v Chunking is a strategy three digits, and then four
related items together so used to improve short-term digits.
that someone can memory ability. § Acronymns: INTDMH
v Short-term memory I Need To Do My Homework
remember them more
cannot remember large § Practicing: breaking up
easily amounts of information, what is required to learn
information can be into parts then each part
chunked together. grouping its needed ideas
(eg .speech)
 2018--2019
Chunking Strategy
 2018--2019
q Mnemonics Strategy
q Rehearsal Strategy

Ø Mnemonics are memory devices

Ø A rehearsal strategy uses repeated that help learners recall large
practice of information to learn it. pieces of information
ü For example, students repeat
information over and over to ü For example, in English,the 7
memorize it after listening to it or coordinating conjunctions are
reading it. For ,And ,Nor,But,Or,Yet,So =
FANBOYS
q Spaced Practice Method
q Brain Excercice

Ø It refers to a study schedule that Ø Memory is like a muscular strength is

involves studying material over a a" use it or lose it " proposition. The
period of time, with breaks in more you work out your brain ,the
between. better you will be able to process and
ü For example, studying for 1 hour to remember information.
2 hours then taking rest for 20 Ø for example,reading,solving puzzles...
minutes. It promotes retention .
 Loci method (memory place)
2018--2019
q The method of loci is a strategy for memorizing new information (eg. speech).Visualize each idea in a place
around house . It helps you recall the order and content of the information ( speech ).

01 02 03

v First, imagine yourself

"placing" what you need to v Finally, see yourself
v Then, visualize
remember around the room
yourself walking picking up each item
(one thing per area).
eg. a speech ( the introduction back through the in the order you "set
in the living room,the first room. it down."
argument in the kitchen,and the
second in the roof.
 Mnemonics
2018--2019

§ Memory improvement techniques are also called mnemonic

devices.
§ Two basic principles:
Ø Recording of information into forms that are easy to
remember .
Ø Supplying oneself with excellent retrieval cues to recall
to recall the information when needed
Example: VIBGYOR
 Most common Mnemonic Techniques
2018--2019

q Method of Loci:
§ latin word meaning “places”
§ Forming vivid interactive images between locations and items to be
remembered.
§ First step is to learn a set of places
§ Next convert each information into a vivid mental image by putting in it at the
familiar location
§ Limitation: The amount of information one can remember using this methode
is limited only by number of locations one has mentioned.
2018--2019
 PQ4R Method
2018--2019

Ø Technique used to remembering text material.

The name itself is a mnemonic .

q P:Preview
q Q:Questions
q R:Read
q R:Recite
q R:Review
q R:Recall
 Peg Word Method
2018--2019

Ø The mnemonic methode of remembering things through visual imagery.

Ø people learn a series of words that serve as “pegs” on which memories can be
“hung”

Ø The peg word rhyme with the numbers to make the words easy to remember.
Peg Word Method
2018--2019
 Other Techniques
2018--2019

Ø Convert verbal information into mental images

Ø Encode----Recode----Retrieval
Ø Focus on meaning while learning rather than superficial
characteristics
Ø Relate information to personal experience spacing out study
sessions
Ø Try to remember settings in which you originally learned
 Influential Studies
2018--2019

Ø The human memory has been the subject of investigation among many 20th
Century psychologists and remains an active area of study for today’s
cognitive scientists. Below we take a look at some of the most influential
studies, experiments and theories that continue to guide our understanding of
the function of memory.
 Multi-Store Model
2018--2019
(Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)

Ø This model suggested that information exists in one of 3 states of memory

Ø Information enters the memory from the senses
Ø This stream of information is held in the sensory memory store
Ø A sight or sound that we might find interesting captures our attention, and our
contemplation of this information - known as rehearsal - leads to the data
being promoted to the short-term memory store, where it will be held for a
few hours or even days in case we need access to it.
Ø Rehearsal then further promotes this significant information to the long-term
memory store
 Multi-Store Model
2018--2019
(Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
 2-Levels 2018--2019
of Processing
(Craik & Lockhart, 1972)

Ø According to this model, memories do not reside in 3 stores;

instead, the strength of a memory trace depends upon the quality
of processing, or rehearsal, of a stimulus. In other words, the more
we think about something, the more long-lasting the memory we
have of it
Ø Craik and Lockhart distinguished between two types of
processing that take place when we make an observation: shallow
and deep processing.
 3:Working2018--2019
Memory Model
(Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)

Ø The working memory model proposed 2 components- a visuo-spatial sketchpad

(the ‘inner eye’) and an
articulatory-phonological loop (the ‘inner ear’),
which focus on a different types of sensory
information.
Ø Both work independently of one another,
but are regulated by a central executive
 4-Miller’s Magic Number
2018--2019
(Miller, 1956)
Ø cognitive psychologist George A. Miller questioned the limits of the short-term
memory’s capacity.
Ø people tend only to be able to hold, on average, 7 chunks of information (plus or
minus two) in the short-term memory before needing to further process them for
longer storage
Ø Only through sustained effort of rehearsing information are we able to memorize
data for longer than a short period of time.
 5-Memory Decay
2018--2019
(Peterson and Peterson, 1959)
Ø Peterson and Peterson set out to measure memories’ longevity - how long will a
memory last without being rehearsed before it is forgotten completely?
Ø In an experiment employing a Brown-Peterson task, participants were given a list
of trigrams - meaningless lists of 3 letters (e.g. GRT, PXM, RBZ) - to remember
Ø almost all participants were initially able to recall the trigrams, after 18 seconds
recall accuracy fell to around just 10%. Peterson and Peterson’s study
demonstrated the surprising brevity of memories in the short-term store, before
decay affects our ability to recall them.
2018--2019
 8-Interference
2018--2019
(Underwood & Postman, 1960)
Ø Interference theory postulates that we forget memories due to other memories
interfering with our recall.
Ø Types of interference are more likely to occur when two memories are
semantically related, as demonstrated in a 1960 experiment
Ø Interference also works in the opposite direction: existing memories sometimes
inhibit our ability to memorize new information. This might occur when you
receive a work schedule, for instance. When you are given a new schedule a few
months later, you may find yourself adhering to the original times.
2018--2019
 8-Memory and Smell
2018--2019

Ø Researchers at the University of North Carolina tested the olfactory effects on

memory encoding and retrieval in a 1989 experiment.
Ø The link between memory and sense of smell helps many species - not just
humans - to survive. The ability to remember and later recognize smells enables
animals to detect the nearby presence of members of the same group, potential
prey and predators.
 2018--2019
9-False Memories

Ø Can false memories be implanted in our minds?

Ø Cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has spent much of her life researching
the reliability of our memories; particularly in circumstances when their accuracy
has wider consequences, such as the testimonials of eyewitness in criminal trial
 2018--2019
10-The Weapon Effect on Eyewitness Testimonies
(Johnson & Scott, 1976)

Ø A person’s ability to memorize an event inevitably depends not just on rehearsal

but also on the attention paid to it at the time it occurred. In a situation such as an
bank robbery, you may have other things on your mind besides memorizing the
appearance of the perpetrator. But witness’s ability to produce a testimony can
sometimes be affected by whether or not a gun was involved in a crime.
 2018--2019
Theories Of Memory

q There are the following theories of memory in psychology :

Ø Theory of General Memory Process(Encoding Storage And Retrieval)

Ø Information-processing ( Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin Model, 1968)
Ø Levels Of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)
 Theory of General Memory Process
2018--2019
( EncodAing Storage And Retrieval)

q This theory explains that the memory consists of the three cognitive processes.
These are— An encoding process, a storage process and a retrieval process.
Ø Encoding

When information comes into our memory system (from sensory input), it needs to
be changed into a form that the system can cope with so that it can be stored.
There are three main ways in which information can be encoded (changed):
1. Visual (picture)
2. Acoustic (sound)
3. Semantic (meaning)
 Theory of General Memory Process
2018--2019
( EncodAing Storage And Retrieval)

q Retrieval
Retrieval is the process of gaining access to the stored, coded information when it is
needed and the ability to recall depends on whether the information is in short-term
memory (STM) or long-term memory (LTM).
q Short-Term Memory (STM):
Ø Sequential Retrieval
ü Example: If asked to recall the fourth word in a list, you would mentally replay
the list in sequence.
q Long-Term Memory (LTM):
Ø Retrieval by Association
ü Example: You remember what you needed upstairs by returning to the room
where you first thought about it.
 2018--2019
v Memory Storage
Ø This encompasses where information is stored, how long memories endure, the capacity of
memory, and the types of information held. Short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory
(LTM) exhibit key distinctions.
v Duration
§ STM: Information held briefly, typically for 0-30 seconds.
§ LTM: Information can last from days to a lifetime.
v Capacity
§ STM: Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items, a concept known as the "magic number
7," which can be expanded through chunking.
§ LTM: Considered to have an unlimited capacity, allowing the storage of vast amounts of
information over time.
v Chunking
Ø In STM, the ability to group or combine information to increase the effective capacity.
Helps overcome the limitations of STM's initial item storage estimate.
 Information-processing
2018--2019( Atkinson and
Richard Shiffrin Model, 1968)

v The ideas about memory that emphasize the processing of information in stages, or steps are

known as information-processing theories or models. A number of such models have been

proposed. The most prominent among them is the storage and transfer model developed by

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968)

 Atkinson and 2018--2019
Richard Shiffrin Model, 1968

v The Atkinson–Shiffrin model (also known as the multi-store model or modal model) is a model of
memory proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin and is a structural model.
They proposed that memory consisted of three stores: a sensory register, short-term memory (STM)
and long-term memory (LTM).

v a sensory register, where sensory information enters memory,

a short-term store, also called working memory or short-term memory, which receives and holds input
from both the sensory register and the long-term store, and a long-term store, where information
which has been rehearsed (explained below) in the short-term store is held indefinitely.
 Levels Of Processing
2018--2019 Theory (Craik &
Lockhart, 1972)

v The levels of processing model (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) focuses on the depth of processing

involved in memory, and predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace

will last.

ü Craik defined depth as:

“the meaningfulness extracted from the stimulus rather than in terms of the number of analyses

performed upon it.” (1973, p. 48)

 Levels Of Processing
2018--2019 Theory (Craik &
Lockhart, 1972)
We can process information in 3 ways:

Ø Shallow Processing:
ü Involves processing information at a superficial level, such as attending to its physical features
(e.g., font, color, shape).

Ø Intermediate Processing:
ü Involves some analysis of the information, such as recognizing the sound or structure of words.

Ø Deep Processing:
ü Involves processing the meaning and significance of the information. This level of processing is
associated with better memory retention.
Memory in sickness
2018--2019
 Amnesia
2018--2019

q Definition:

v Amnesia is a general term describing memory loss. It refers to the Loss of memories, Including
facts, experiments and Information.
It involves being unable to remember
significant events and details from your life.
 2018--2019
Types of Amnesia

v Biogenic amnesia

v Psychogenic amnesia

v Retrograde amnesia

v Anterograde amnesia

v Traumatic amnesia

v Alcohol-induced amnesia
 2018--2019
Types of Amnesia

v Biogenic amnesia:
ü Biogenic amnesia is the actual memory loss. In this type pf amnesia, materials from brain is
permanently loss because of traumatic injuries or some disease in the brain.

v Psychogenic amnesia:
ü Psychogenic amnesia is in reality not an actual memory loss but patient is unable to recall Various
matters related to him. In psychogenic amnesia patient does not forget his habits, languages, styles
etc. Patient usually forget about those matters of life which are presently stress producing. For
example; his identity, his name. For example in fugue patient forget about his identity and move
away from his house and live another place with new identity and occupation. Such memory loss
can recover at any moment thus this is a temporary memory loss.
 2018--2019
Types of Amnesia

v Anterograde amnesia:
A patient with anterograde amnesia Cannot remember new information. This usually results from
brain trauma Such as blow to the head that causes brain damage. The person will have full memory
From the time before the injury.

v Retrograde amnesia:
In some cases way the opposite to the anterograde amnesia Retrograde amnesia is When the person
cannot remember the events that occurred just before the trauma. But they can remember what
happened after it.
 2018--2019
Types of Amnesia

v Traumatic amnesia:
This refers to the Memory loss Resulting from a hard blow to the head for instance in car accident.
The person may experience A brief loss of consciousness or coma. This type of amnesia is temporary
but It’s duration depends on the severity of the injury.

v Alcohol-induced amnesia:
Alcohol-induced amnesia also called korsakoff’s syndrome is A memory disorder which results from
vitamin B1 deficiency and Alcoholism. Person with this disorder will not recognize pictures, faces
rooms etc. That have just seen although they may feel these are familiar.
 Memory in Nursing
2018--2019

v Performance of duty by a nurse is heavily depend on the memory. He has to remember lot of

things for efficient performance. The things a nurse should have to remember are:
1. Hours of duty
2. Bed number
3. Number of patients
4. Case history of patients
5. Treatment Course
6. Technical terminology related to medical field
7. Medications
v Challenges in nursing: patients keep on changing and new patients come with new diseases,
disorders. With every new patient type of treatment and medication may also change. This change
is so fast that the Load is too high to error occur at any time.
 Memory in Nursing
2018--2019

v How nurse can overcome these challenges ?

1. Better to keep diary.
2. It is better to collect elaborated information of new diseases and medications.
3. Matters too short in length may easily forgotten. Such short lengths matters should be given a
little bit special care.
4. Various daily matters should be Arranged in preference based and seriousness of cases.
5. Various terms And names used in this line are not used in daily life so it is better to remember
these with there meanings.
 Application in Nursing:
2018--2019

1. Understanding the nature and working of memory Can help the nurse to apply it in caring and

treating patients.

2. Can understand variance Of memory in different health problems in patients.

3. Provide knowledge about understanding the symptoms and Problems of patients with amnesia.

4. Can also help in the treating and care of patients with related problems.

5. Can use different methods to provide better care to the patients and fulfil their needs.
 2018--2019
References
•Psychology for nurses:Harish kumar sharma & Gulshan Mann
•Braisby,N.Gellatly,A. (2005) .Cognitive psychology
•https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-memory-2795006
•https://www.simplypsychology.org/memory.html
•https://www.psychologistworld.com/memory/influential-memory-psychology-studies-experiments
•https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/memory/3-main-theories-that-explain-how-we-remember/648
•https://nobaproject.com/modules/memory-encoding-storage-retrieval
M
em
or
y

Thank You
for
Listening!