Chapter 5 Memory: Models and Research Methods recognition.

recognition. “The term for people without standing memory ability is (1) amnesics, (2) semanticists, (3)mnemonists, or (4)
Introduction retrograders.
Memory – the means by which we retain and draw on our past experiences to use that information in the present
• As a process, memory refers to the dynamic mechanisms associated with storing, retaining, and retrieving information • Recognition memory is usually much better than recall.
about past experiences • Informing participants of the type of future test they will take can influence the amount of learning that occurs
• anticipation of recall tasks generally elicits deeper levels of information processing than anticipation of recognition
Three Common Operations of Memory: tasks
1. Memory
2. Encoding – you transform sensory data into a form of mental representation Additional measures:
3. Storage – you keep encoded information in memory Relearning – which is the number of trials it takes to learn once again items that were learned in the past.
4. Retrieval – you pull out or use information stored in memory Declarative-Knowledge tasks – you must recall facts
Task involving procedural knowledge – you must remember learned skills and automatic behaviors
this chapter discuss:
1. examine several models how memory work B. Implicit vs Explicit
2. traditional model of memory (sensory, short-term, and long-term) 1. Explicit Memory – participants engage in conscious recollection
Example: For example, they might recall or recognize words, facts, or pictures from a particular prior set of items.
TASKS USED FOR MEASURING MEMORY_____________________________________________________
( 2 categories: recall vs recognition memory/ implicit vs explicit memory) 2. Implicit Memory – we use information from memory but are not consciously aware that we are doing so.

A. Recall vs Recognition a. Priming – the facilitation of your ability to utilize missing information

1. Recall – you produce a fact, a word, or other item from memory b. Procedural memory/memory process - include the procedures involved in riding a bike or driving a car.
− Called as Expressive Knowledge means you have to produce an answer Consider when you drive to the mall: You probably put the car into gear, use your blinkers, and stay in your lane
Example: Suppose you want to measure people’s memory for late-night comedians. You could ask people to name a TV without actively thinking about the task. Nor do you consciously need to remember what you should do at a red
comedian. Fill-in-the-blank and most essay tests require that you recall items from memory. light. Many of the activities that we do every day fall under the purview of procedural memory; these can range from
brushing your teeth to writing.
Types of Recall
a. Serial Recall – Repeat the items in a list in the exact order in which you heard or read them Measured with:
Example: If you were shown the digits 2-8-7-1-6-4, you would be expected to repeat “2-8-7-1-6-4,” in exactly that i. Rotary Pursuit Task – the rotary pursuit task requires participants to maintain contact between an L-
order. shaped stylus and a small rotating disk
ii. Mirror Tracing – a plate with the outline of a shape drawn on it is put behind a barrier where it cannot be
b. Free Recall – Repeat the items in a list in any order in which you can recall them. seen. Beyond the barrier in the participant’s line of sight is a mirror.
If you were presented with the word list “dog, pencil, time, hair, monkey, restaurant,” you would receive full credit if
you repeated “monkey, restaurant, dog, pencil, time, hair.” Intelligence and the Importance of Culture in Testing
Culture-relevant tests – measure skills and knowledge that relate to the cultural experiences of the test-takers.
c. Cued Recall/Paired-Associates Recall – memorize a list of paired items; then when you are given one item in MODELS OF MEMORY
the pair, you must recall the mate for that item.
Suppose that you were given the following list of pairs: “time-city, mist-home, switch-paper, credit-day, fist-cloud, 1. The Traditional Model of Memory
number-branch. ”Later, when you were given the stimulus “switch,” you would be expected to say “paper,” and 2. The Levels-of-Processing Model
soon. 3. An Integrative Model: Working Memory
4. Multiple Memory Systems
2. Recognition – you select or otherwise identify an item as being one that you have been exposed to previously. 5. A Connectionist Perspective
− Called as Receptive Knowledge means “ response to a stimulus”
Example:
You could ask people which of the following is a late-night comic: Jennifer Lopez, Jay Leno, Guy Ritchie, Cameron Diaz.
Multiple-choice and true-false tests involve some degree of recognition. Multiple-choice and true-false tests involve
CHAPTER 6 MEMORY PROCESS____________________________________________ 2. Long-Term Storage

Main processes of memory as comprising three common operations:

Encoding Types and LTM
1. Encoding – refers to how you transform a physical, sensory input into a kind of
• Type of code may rely on type of task
representation that can be placed into memory
• LTM refers to memory that may be held permanently
• Creating an acoustic code– What it sounds like
• Evidence exists for a variety of encoding types for LTM
• Creating a semantic code– What it means
• Creating a visual code– What it looks like
Semantic Encoding in LTM
• Grossman & Eagle (1970)
2. Storage – refers to how you retain encoded information in memory.
− Study 41 different words
− Given recognition test after delay– 9 of the distractors were semantically
3. Retrieval – refers to how you gain access to information stored in memory
− related to words on list (synonymous) – items that appear to be valid choice but
ENCODING AND TRANSFER OF INFORMATION − not correct alternatives
− 9 of the distractors were not
A. Forms of Encoding − False alarms for each type: 1.83 of synonyms, but only 1.05 of unrelated

1. Short-Term Storage Visual Encoding in LTM

encode information for temporary storage and use • Frost (1972)
− Participants studied 16 drawings
Encoding Types and STM − Manipulated visual orientation and semantic category
• Type of code may rely on type of task − After a delay, participants were asked if they had studied an object with the same
• STM refers to memory that is held temporarily name as the test object
• Evidence exists for a variety of encoding types in STM − Reaction time was measured
− Participants responded faster to identical drawings than drawings in a different
orientation
− This result indicates visual encoding occurred
− Participants were encoding visual and semantic information.

Acoustic Encoding in LTM

− Evidence of very long-term memory for songs

• Rubin (1977)
− Participants recall more of the text when provided with the melody of a well-learned
song ("Star Spangled Banner") than when given no cue
Transfer of Information from Short-Term Memory to Long-Term Memory a. Elaborative Rehearsal
− individual somehow elaborates the items to be remembered
Two key problems: − makes the items either more meaningfully integrated into what the person already knows or
more meaningfully connected to one another and therefore more memorable
1. Interference b. Maintenance Rehearsal
When competing information interferes with our storing information, − individual simply repetitiously rehearses the items to be repeated

2. Decay 2. The Spacing Effect

When we forget facts just because time passes − The greater the distribution of learning trials over time, the more the participants remembered over long
periods. To maximize the effect on long-term recall, the spacing should ideally be distributed over
Methods to store information into long-term memory months, rather than days or weeks.

1. Consolidation a. Distributed Practice

− Integrating new information into stored information − learning in which various sessions are spaced over time
− Disruption of consolidation is studied in amnesiacs
− ECT patients (Squire) b. Massed Practice
− learning in which sessions are crammed together in a very short space of time. The greater the
2. Metamemory distribution of learning trials over time, the more the participants remembered over long
− strategies involve reflecting on our own memory processes with a view to improving our memory periods.
− Understanding and reflection upon our memory and how to improve it
− Knowing what you know
− Knowing how your memory works What causes the spacing effect?
− Being able to assess your own memory • Multiple encoding contexts theory– Multiple study sessions lead to multiple types of encoding, thus
− Young children lack metamemory skills more possibility of matching during test conditions
− One component of Metacognition – our ability to think about and control our own processes of • REM Theory – The more REM sessions following study sessions, the more consolidation that occurs
thought and ways oof enhancing our thinking 1. Stage 1 – 4–5% Light sleep. Muscle activity slows down. Occasional muscle twitching.
2. Stage 2 – 45–55% Breathing pattern and heart rate slows. Slight decrease in body temperature.
3. Stage 3 – 4–6% Deep sleep begins. Brain begins to generate slow delta waves.
4. Stage 4 – 12–15% Very deep sleep. Rhythmic breathing. Limited muscle activity. Brain produces
Principles to Strengthen Memory delta waves.
• Elaborative rehearsal is better than maintenance rehearsal 5. Stage 5 – 20–25% Rapid eye movement. Brainwaves speed up and dreaming occurs. Muscles relax
• Distributed practice is better than massed practice – “Spacing effect” and heart rate increases. Breathing is rapid and shallow.
• Organizing information enhances memory

1. Rehearsal
− repeated recitation of an item
− One technique people use for keeping information active
− The effects of such rehearsal are termed Practice Effects
− Overt: may be usually aloud and obvious to anyone
Covert: silent and hidden
Organization of Information 4. Method of Loci
− Visualize walking around an area with distinctive land marks that you know well, and then link
Mnemonic Devices the various land marks to specific items to be remembered.
− specific techniques to help you memorize lists of words − Mentally walk past each of the distinctive land marks, depositing each word to be memorized
at one of the landmarks. Visualize an interactive image between the new word and the
− Essentially, such devices add meaning to otherwise meaningless or arbitrary lists of
landmark. Suppose you have three landmarks on your route to school—a strange looking
items. Even music can be used as a mnemonic device when a well-known or easy
house, a tree, and a baseball diamond. You might imagine a big sock on top of the house in
melody is used and connected with the material that needs to be learned. place of the chimney, the pair of scissors cutting the tree, and apples replacing bases on the
baseball diamond. When ready to remember the list, you would take your mental walk and pick
1. Categorical Clustering up the words you had linked to each of the landmarks along the walk.
− Organize a list of items into a set of categories
− If you needed to remember to buy apples, milk, bagels, grapes, yogurt, rolls, 5. Acronym
Swiss cheese, grapefruit, and lettuce, you would be better able to do so if − Devise a word or expression in which each of its letters stands for a certain other word or
you tried to memorize the items by categories: fruits apples, grapes, concept (e.g., USA, IQ, and laser)
grapefruit; dairy products—milk, yogurt, Swiss cheese; breads—bagels, − Suppose that you want to remember the names of the mnemonic devices described in this
rolls; vegetables—lettuce. chapter. The acronym “IAMPACK” might prompt you to remember Interactive images,
Acronyms, Method of loci, Peg words, Acrostics, Categories, and Keywords. Of course, this
technique is more useful if the first letters of the words to be memorized actually can be
2. Interactive Images
formed into a word phrase, or something close to one, even if the word or phrase is non
− Create interactive images that link the isolated words in a list. sensical, as in this example.
− Suppose you have to remember to buy socks, apples, and a pair of scissors.
You might imagine using scissors to cut a sock that has an apple stuffed in 6. Acrostic
it. − Form a sentence rather than a single word to help you remember the new words.
− Music students trying to memorize the names of the notes found on lines of the treble clef (the
3. Pegword higher notes; specifically E,G,B,D, and F above middle C) learn that “Every Good Boy Does
− Associate each new word with a word on a previously memorized list and Fine.”
form an interactive image between the two words.
7. Keyword System
− One such list is from a nursery rhyme: One is a bun. Two is a shoe. Three is a
− Form an interactive image that links the sound and meaning of a foreign word with the sound
tree, and soon. To remember that you need to buy socks, apples, and a pair
and meaning of a familiar word.
of scissors, you might imagine an apple between two buns, a sock stuffed
− Suppose that you needed to learn that the French word for butter is beurre. First, you would
inside a shoe, and a pair of scissors cutting a tree. When you need to note that beurre sounds something like “bear.” Next, you would associate the keyword bear
remember the words, you first recall the numbered images and then recall with butter in an image or sentence. For instance, you might visualize a bear eating a stick of
the words as you visualize them in the interactive images. butter. Later, bear would provide a retrieval cue for beurre.
a. Retrospective Memory
− our memory for the past The experimental group remembers less material from the tested list B than the control group
Information previously learned (list A) interferes with retrieval of List B
b. Prospective Memory Here are the words in the order viewed
− memory for things we need to do or remember in the future
− Buying bread on your way home from work Serial-Position Curve represents the probability of recall of a given word, given its serial position
− Going to the dentist on Wednesday (order of presentation) in a list.

RETRIEVAL Recency Effect refers to superior recall of words at and near the end of a list.
• Getting information back out
• Multiple processes can be used to enhance retrieval Primacy Effect refers to superior recall of words at and near the beginning of a list.
• Different strategies are used for short term storage and long term storage Reconstructive, involving the use of various strategies
• Matching the type of processes done during encoding with the type of processes done at retrieval
increases success Constructive, in that prior experience affects how we recall things and what we actually recall from
memory
Retrieval from STM Autobiographical Memory refers to memory of an individual’s history.
• Is the search serial or parallel?
Flashbulb Memory—a memory of an event so powerful that the person remembers the event as
− Serial indicates retrieval of information/items one by one
vividly as if it were indelibly preserved on film
− Parallel means retrieval of information/items all at once.
• Is the search exhaustive or self-terminating? Memory Distortion
− Exhaustive always checks the test digit against all digits
• Simply recalling may distort your memory
− Self-terminating check the test digit against only those digits needed to make a response.
• Simple suggestion may distort your memory
• Memory is constructive in nature
If You Cannot Retrieve from LTM…
• Has the memory disappeared?
Schacter’s “Seven Sins of Memory”
• Is the memory available but not accessible?
1. Transience – Memories are transient (fade with time)
• Availability is the presence of information stored in long-term memory.
2. Absent-mindedness – We do not remember what we do not pay attention to
• Accessibility is the degree to which we can gain access to the available information.
3. Blocking – Our memories can be temporarily blocked
Theories about Forgetting
4. Misattribution – People often cannot remember where they heard what they heard or read.
• Decay theory 5. Suggestibility – if it is suggested to them that they saw something think they remember seeing it
− Memory is weakened with discuss 6. Bias – People often are biased in their recall. We can show memory distortion (bias)
− Simply passage of time… 7. Persistence – People sometimes remember things as consequential that, in a broad context, are
Interference theory When competing information interferes with our storing information, inconsequential. We often fail to forget the things we would like not to recall (persistence of
− Proactive: old memories interfere with recall of new information memory)
− Retroactive: new memories interfere with recall of old information

Schemas are mental frameworks that represent knowledge in a meaningful way.

CHAPTER 7: THE LANDSCAPE OF MEMORY: MENTAL IMAGES, MAPS, AND PROPOSITIONS Mental Manipulations of Images
• Functional-Equivalence Hypothesis, although visual imagery is not identical to visual perception, it is functionally
Knowledge Representation, the form for what you know in your mind about things, ideas, events, and so on, in the outside equivalent to it.
world.
• Mental Rotations
Mental rotation involves rotationally transforming an object’s visual mental image
Mental Representation of Knowledge
1. Declarative Knowledge refers to facts that can be stated, such as the date of your birth, the name of your best friend, or
Johnson-Laird’s Mental Models
the way a rabbit looks.
An alternative synthesis of the literature suggests that mental representations may take any of three forms: propositions,
2. Procedural Knowledge refers to knowledge of procedures that can be implemented
images, or mental models.
Symbolic Representation, meaning that the relationship between the word and what it represents is simply arbitrary.
Mental Models are knowledge structures that individuals construct to understand and explain their experiences
Pictures in Your Mind: Mental Imagery
Spatial Cognition and Cognitive Maps
Imagery is the mental representation of things that are not currently seen or sensed by the sense organs
• Spatial cognition deals with the acquisition, organization, and use of knowledge about objects and actions in two- and
Dual-Code Theory: Images and Symbols three-dimensional space.
1. Dual-Code Theory, we use both pictorial and verbal codes for represent ing information • Cognitive maps are internal representations of our physical environment, particularly centering on spatial
2. Analog Codes resemble the objects they are representing. relationships.

Storing Knowledge as Abstract Concepts: Propositional Theory Of Rats, Bees, Pigeons, and Humans
Propositional Theory suggests that we do not store mental representations in the form of images or mere words. Humans seem to use three types of knowledge when forming and using cognitive maps:
1. Landmark Knowledge is information about particular features at a location and which may be based on both imaginal
Epiphenomena—secondary and derivative phenomena that occur as a result of other more basic cognitive processes. and propositional representations.
2. Route-Road Knowledge involves specific pathways for moving from one location to another. It may be based on both
Limitations of Propositional Theory procedural knowledge and declarative knowledge.
They believe that the mental reinterpretation of ambiguous figures involves two manipulations. 3. Survey Knowledge involves estimated distances between landmarks, much as they might appear on survey maps. It
may be repre sented imaginally or propositionally (e.g., in numerically specified distances).
1. mental realignment of the reference frame. This realignment would involve a shift in the positional orientations of the
figures on the mental “page” or “screen” on which the image is displayed. In Figure 7.6(a), the shift would be of the Rules of Thumb for Using Our Mental Maps: Heuristics
duck’s back to the rabbit’s front, and the duck’s front to the rabbit’s back.
These rules of thumb are cognitive strategies termed heuristics.
2. manipulation is a mental reconstrual (reinterpretation) of parts of the figure. This reconstrual would be of the duck’s 1. Right-Angle Bias: People tend to think of intersections (e.g., street crossings) as forming 90-degree angles more often
bill as the rabbit’s ears. than the intersections really do
2. Symmetry Heuristic: People tend to think of shapes (e.g., states or countries) as being more symmetrical than they
• Implicit reference-frame hint: Participants first were shown another ambiguous figure involving realignment of the really are
reference frame [e.g., see Figure 7.6(b); a hawk’s head/a goose’s tail, and a hawk’s tail/a goose’s head]. 3. Rotation Heuristic: When representing figures and boundaries that are slightly slanted (i.e., oblique), people tend to
• Explicit reference-frame hint: Participants were asked to modify the reference frame by considering either “the back distort the images as being either more vertical or more horizontal than they really are
of the head of the animal they had already seen as the front of the head of some other animal” (Peterson et al., 1992, p. 4. Alignment Heuristic: People tend to represent landmarks and boundaries that are slightly out of alignment by
111; considered a conceptual hint) or “the front of the thing you were seeing as the back of something else” (p. 115; distorting their mental images to be better aligned than they really are
considered an abstract hint). 287 Mental Manipulations of Images 5. Relative-Position Heuristic: The relative positions of particular landmarks and boundaries is distorted in mental
• Attentional Hint: Participants were directed to attend to regions of the figure where realignments or reconstruals were images in ways that more accurately reflect people’s conceptual knowledge about the contexts in which the landmarks
to occur. and boundaries are located, rather than reflecting the actual spatial configurations
• Construals from “good” parts: Participants were asked to construe an image from parts determined to be “good”
(according to both objective [geometrical] and empirical [inter-rater agreement] criteria), rather than from parts
determined to be “bad” (according to similar criteria)
CHAPTER LANGUAGE Special Suffixes
Chapter 9: Language: Nature and Acquisition 1. Verb Tense: You study often. You studied yesterday. You are studying now.
2. Verb and noun number: The professor assigns homework. The teaching assistants assign
Communication – exchange of thoughts and feelings homework.
Psycholinguistics – the psychology of our language as it interacts with the hu man mind. 3. Noun possession: The student’s textbook is fascinating.
4. Adjective comparison: The wiser of the two professors taught the wisest of the three students.
Four areas of psycholinguistics
1. Linguistics – the study of language structure and change • Lexicon is the entire set of morphemes in a given language or in a given person’s linguistic
2. Neurolinguistics – study of the relationships among the brain, cognition and language repertoire.
3. Sociolinguistics – the study of the relationship between social behavior and language
4. Computational Linguistics – the study of language via computational methods Basic Components of Sentences
• Syntax refers to the way in which we put words together to form sentences.
Properties of Language
1. Communicative – Language permits us to communicate with one or more people who share A sentence comprises at least two parts.
our language 1. Noun Phrase – which contains at least one noun (often the subject of the sentence) and includes
2. Arbitrarily Symbolic: Language creates an arbitrary relationship between a symbol and what all the relevant descriptors of the noun (like “big” or “fast”).
it represents: an idea, a thing, a process, a relationship, or a description. 2. Verb Phrase (predicate) – which contains at least one verb and whatever the verb acts on, if
3. Regularly Structured: Language has a structure; only particularly patterned arrange ments of anything.
symbols have meaning, and different arrangements yield different meanings.
4. Structured at multiple levels: The structure of language can be analyzed at more than one • Semantics – the study of meaning in a language
level (e.g., in sounds, meaning units, words, and phrases). • Coarticulation –we pronounce more than one sound at the same time. This is called
5. Generative, Productive: Within the limits of a linguistic structure, language users can coarticulation.
produce novel utterances. The possibilities for creating new utterances are virtually limitless. • Speech Segmentation – process of trying to separate the continuous sound stream into distinct
6. Dynamic: Languages constantly evolve words categorical perception, p. 372

Basic Components of Words The View of Speech Perception as Ordinary

1. Phoneme is the smallest unit of speech sound that can be used to distinguish one utterance • Phonemic-Restoration Effect involves integrat ing what we know with what we hear when we
in a given language from another. In English, pho nemes are made up of vowel or consonant perceive speech
sounds, like a, i, s, and f.
2. Phonemics – study of particular phonemes of languages
3. Phonetics – study of how to produce or combine speech sounds or to represent them with
written symbols.
4. Morpheme—the smallest unit of meaning within a particular language.
a. Content Morphemes are the words that convey the bulk of the meaning of a language.
b. Function Morphemes add detail and nuance to the meaning of the content morphemes
or help the content morphemes fit the grammatical context.
The View of Speech Perception as Special Thematic Roles are ways in which items can be used in the
1. Categorical Perception: discontinuous categories of speech sounds. context of communication. Several roles have been identified. In particular, these
2. Motor Theory: we use the movements of the speaker’s vocal tract to perceive what he says. are the roles of:
• the agent, the “doer” of any action;
Understanding Meaning: Semantics • the patient, the direct recipient of the action;
Denotation is the strict dictionary definition of a word. • the beneficiary, the indirect recipient of the action;
Connotation is a word’s emotional overtones, presuppositions, and other nonexplicit meanings. • the instrument, the means by which the action is implemented;
• the location, the place where the action occurs;
Understanding Sentences: Syntax • the source, where the action originated; and
Grammar is the study of language in terms of noticing reg ular patterns. • the goal, where the action is going (

1. Syntactical Priming When Reading Is a Problem—Dyslexia

we show syntactical priming of sentence structures. In other words, we spontaneously tend to Dyslexia—difficulty in deciphering, reading, and comprehending text—can suffer greatly in a society
use syntactical structures and read faster sentences that parallel the structures of sentences we that puts a high premium on fluent reading
have just heard
1. Phonological Awareness, which refers to awareness of the sound structure of spo ken language.
2. Speech Errors 2. Phonological Reading, which entails reading words in isolation.
Other evidence of our uncanny aptitude for syntax is shown in the speech errors we produce. 3. Phonological Coding in working memory. This process is involved in remembering strings of
phonemes that are sometimes confusing.
Analyzing Sentences: Phrase-Structure Grammar 4. Lexical access refers to one’s ability to retrieve phonemes from long-term memory.
Phrase-Structure Grammar – they analyze the structure of phrases as they are used.
• Lexical Processes: used to identify letters and words. They also activate relevant information in
A New Approach to Syntax: Transformational Grammar memory about these words.
Transformational Grammar, which involves transformational rules. These rules guide the ways in
which an underlying proposition can be arranged into a sentence. • Comprehension: processes are used to make sense of the text as a whole (and are discussed
later in this chapter).
1. Deep Structure refers to an underlying syntactical structure that links various phrase structures
through various transformation rules. • Word-Superiority Effect: letters are read more easily when they are embedded in words than
2. Surface Structure refers to any of the various phrase structures that may result from such when they are presented either in isolation or with letters that do not form words.
transformations.