Remote Sensing

REMOTE SENSING
LECTURE 1
BIBHUTI BHUSAN SWAIN
LECTURER IN GEOLOGY
U.N. (AUTO) COLLEGE OF SC. &
TECH.,ADASPUR,CUTTACK
The International Society for Photogrammetry and
Remote Sensing (ISPRS) defined Remote Sensing
(RS) as:
“The art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable
information about physical objects and the
environment, through the process of recording,
measuring, interpreting imagery and digital
representation of energy patterns derived from non
contact sensor system " .
via cameras recording on film, which may then be scanned (aerial photos)
via sensors, which directly output digital data (satellite imagery)
Remote Sensing Basic Processes
(A) Energy Source
(B) Radiation and the Atmosphere
(C) Interaction with the target
(D) Recording of Energy by the Sensor
(E) Transmission, Receiving and Processing
(F) Interpretation and Analysis
(G) Application
Types of Remote Sensing
 1. Passive Remote Sensing &
2. Active Remote Sensing

A passive Remote Sensing system records the energy naturally radiated or

reflected from an object. An active Remote Sensing system supplies its own source
of energy, which is directed at the object in order to measure the returned energy.
Flash photography is active Remote Sensing in contrast to available light
photography, which is passive. An other common form of active Remote Sensing is
radar, which provides its own source of Electromagnetic energy in the microwave
region. Airborne laser scanning is a relatively new form of active Remote Sensing,
operating the in the visible and Near Infra Red wavelength bands.

Active system
Passive system
(A) Energy Source
(B) Radiation and the Atmosphere
(C) Interaction with the target
(D) Recording of Energy by the Sensor
(E) Transmission, Receiving and Processing
(F) Interpretation and Analysis
(G) Application
Electromagnetic (EM) Spectrum
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all possible electromagnetic
radiation frequencies . The Electromagnetic spectrum is the continuum of energy
ranging from kilometers to nanometers in wavelength.
This continuum is commonly divided into the following ranges, called spectral
bands, the boundaries between them being gradational.
EM spectral regions used for
Remote Sensing
S.No. Region Wavelength Remarks
1. γ- ray Less than 0.03nm Incoming radiation is completely absorbed by the upper atmosphere
and is not available for remote sensing.

2. X- ray 0.03nm-0.03µm Completely absorbed by the atmosphere.

3. UV- ray 0.03-0.4 µm Incoming wavelength less than 0.3 µm are completely absorbed by the
Ozone layer in the atmosphere.

3a. Photographic UV- 0.3-0.4 µm Transmitted through atmosphere, detectable with film and photo
band detectors, but atmospheric scattering is severe.

5. Visible 0.4-0.7 µm Imaged with film and photo detectors, employed in remote sensing.

6. Infrared (IR) 0.7µm-1.0mm Interaction with matter varies with wavelength. Atmospheric
transmission windows are separated by absorption band.

6a. Reflected IR band or 0.7µm-3.0mm This is primarily reflected solar radiation and contains no
photographic IR information about thermal properties of materials. Commonly
divided into the following regions:
band
· Near Infra Red (NIR) between 0.7 to 1.1 mm.
· Middle Infra Red (MIR) between 1.3 to 1.6 mm.
· Short Wave Infra Red (SWIR) between 2 to 2.5 mm.
Radiation from 0.7 to 0.9 mm is detectable with film and is called
photographic IR radiation.
6b. Thermal IR band 3-5 mm Principal atmospheric windows in the thermal region. Not detectable
8-14 mm by the photographic film.

9. Microwave 0.1-30cm Larger wavelengths can penetrate clouds, fog and rain. Images may be
acquired in active or passive mode.

10. Radar 0.1-30cm Active form of microwave remote sensing.

10a. Radio waves Greater than 30cm Longest wavelength portion of EM spectrum. Some classified radars
with very long wavelength can operate in this region.
(A) Energy Source
(B) Radiation and the Atmosphere
(C) Interaction with the target
(D) Recording of Energy by the Sensor
(E) Transmission, Receiving and Processing
(F) Interpretation and Analysis
(G) Application
Interaction of EM radiation with the Atmosphere

1. Scattering of EM radiation:
The scattering is dived in mainly two types:
(i) Selective scattering
(a) Rayleigh scattering, (b) Mie scattering
(ii) Non- selective scattering

(i) Rayleigh scattering:

Rayleigh scattering is largely due to gas molecules and other very small
particles many times smaller than the wavelength of under consideration such as
scattering of visible light by pure gas molecules of size 10-4µm in a clean
atmosphere. The amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth
power of the radiation’s wavelength wavelength. In remote sensing context,
Raleigh scattering is important and cause high path radiance at the blue
end of the spectrum. This scattering is responsible for the blue colour of the
sky.
(ii) Mie scattering:
It takes place when there are essentially spherical particles present in the
atmosphere with diameters approximately equal to the wavelength of radiation.
Water vapour and suspended dust particles in air are the main scatters. So Mie
scattering become more important at low altitude near the earth surface. It
affects the entire spectral region from near photographic UV- NIR. Mie
scattering is more affective than Rayleigh scattering.

(iii) Non- selective scattering:

This is extreme case when particle size is much larger than the wavelength of
radiation. The whitish appearance of sky under heavy haze condition is due
to non-selective scattering.
The effect of atmospheric scattering on remote sensing:

❑ The downward radiation which illuminates the terrain has two components, viz., direct
sunlight and diffuses sky light which is due to atmospheric scattering.
❑ The sky light is bluer than the sun light. Similarly the upcoming radiation which reaches
the remote sensor has also got two components, viz., the light which interacts with earth
terrain and is reflected upward and the component arising from the back scattering of
radiation from atmospheric particles.
❑ The most serious effect of scattering is contrast reduction.
❑ The downward component of scattered light reduces the brightness difference and hence
the contrast between the sunlight and the shaded area of the ground is less.
❑ The upward component of the scattered radiation increases irradiances and hence
reduces the image contrast.
❑ In the IR photos, the shadows are completely dark as scattering is negligible in this
region of the wavelength.
2. Absorption of EM radiation:

❖ Radiation of wavelength less than 0.3 µm is highly absorbed by the

ionosphere and ozone layer of the atmosphere.
❖ Less absorption by the ozone layer occurs in the regions, 0.32- 0.36 µm,
0.6 µm and around 14.1 µm.
❖ The water vapour in the atmosphere absorbs the largest amount of solar
radiation.
❖ CO2 in the atmosphere is a weak absorber of radiation at about 4 µm
wavelength.
 Atmospheric Window
Spectral regions for which the atmosphere is largely or partially transparent (absorption is minimum) are known as
atmospheric windows. In the spectral regions the atmospheric windows exist in the following range:
Name of the spectral region Wavelength range
UV-Visible 0.30-0.75µm *
0.77-0.91 µm *
Near-IR 1.0-1.22 µm
1.22- 1.34 µm
1.55- 1.75 µm*
2.05- 2.4 µm*
Mid-IR (Thermal IR) 3.50- 4.16 µm
4.50- 5.0 µm
8.0- 9.2 µm*
10.20- 12.4 µm*
(8-14 µm used for aerial remote sensing)
17.0-22.0 µm
Microwave 2.06- 2.22mm
7.50-11.5mm*
More than 20.0mm
*- show clearer windows

All spectral regions are affected to some extent by absorption in the atmosphere but there are two nearly transparent ranges, the
optical and radio window and several narrow partial IR windows.
The visible part of the spectrum is marked by the presence of an excellent atmospheric window. Prominent
windows occur throughout the EM spectrum at different intervals. In the thermal IR region two important windows occur at 8.0-9.2 µm
and 10.2-12.4 µm, which are separated by an absorption band due to ozone present in the atmosphere. For remote sensing from
aerial platforms, the thermal channel can be used as 8-14 µm. The atmosphere is essentially opaque in the region of 22 µm to 1mm
wavelength. Microwave of wavelength greater than 20mm are propagated through the atmosphere with least attenuation.
(A) Energy Source
(B) Radiation and the Atmosphere
(C) Interaction with the target
(D) Recording of Energy by the Sensor
(E) Transmission, Receiving and Processing
(F) Interpretation and Analysis
(G) Application
Spectra of Common Natural Objects:

The relationship between the intensity of EM radiation and wavelength is

called the spectral response curve, or spectral signature.

Spectra of Igneous Rocks:

❖ The graphic granites show
absorption band at 1.4 µm, 1.9
µm and 2.2 µm.

❖ Mafic rocks show absorption

band at 0.7 µm and 1.0 µm.
Spectra of Sedimentary rocks:

❖ All sedimentary rocks generally have

water absorption band at 1.4 µm and 1.9
µm.
❖ Clay shale have additional absorption
features at 2.1 µm and 2.3 µm.
❖ Sandstones show the absorption band
at 0.87 µm due to the iron-oxide.
❖ Limestone and calcareous rocks are
charecterized by the absorption band of
carbonate at 1.9 µm and 2,35 µm.
Spectra of Metamorphic
Rocks:

❖ Schist, marble and quartizite

shows absorption band at 1.4 µm
and 1.9 µm.
❖ Marble show absorption band at
1.9 µm and 2.35 µm.
Spectra of Water, Soil and Vegetation:
Remote sensing applications
There can be many applications for Remote Sensing, in different fields, as described
below.

Geology
Geological applications of remote sensing include the following:

· surficial deposit / bedrock mapping

· lithological mapping
· structural mapping
· sand and gravel (aggregate) exploration/ exploitation
· mineral exploration
· hydrocarbon exploration
· environmental geology
· geobotany
· sedimentation mapping and monitoring
· event mapping and monitoring
· geo-hazard mapping
Hydrology
Examples of hydrological applications include:

· wetlands mapping and monitoring,

· soil moisture estimation,
· snow pack monitoring / delineation of extent,
· measuring snow thickness,
· determining snow-water equivalent,
· river and lake ice monitoring,
· flood mapping and monitoring,
· glacier dynamics monitoring
· river /delta change detection
· drainage basin mapping and watershed modelling
· irrigation canal leakage detection
· irrigation scheduling
Land Cover & Land Use
Land use applications of remote sensing include the following:

· natural resource management

· wildlife habitat protection
· baseline mapping
· urban expansion / encroachment
· routing and logistics planning for seismic / exploration / resource extraction
activities
· damage delineation (tornadoes, flooding, volcanic, seismic, fire)
· legal boundaries for tax and property evaluation
· target detection - identification of landing strips, roads, clearings, bridges,
land/water interface

Oceans & Coastal Monitoring

Sea Ice
Forestry
Agriculture etc.
Advantages of Remote Sensing
• Provides a regional view (large areas)
• Provides repetitive looks at the same area
• Remote sensors "see" over a broader portion of the
spectrum than the human eye
• Sensors can focus in on a very specific bandwidth
in an image or a number of bandwidths
simultaneously
• Provides geo-referenced digital data
• Some remote sensors operate in all seasons, at
night and in bad weather
Remote Sensing Organizations
• ISPRS- International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing

• IGARSS-International Geosciences And Remote Sensing

Symposium

• NASA -National Aeronautic and Space Administration (USA)

• ESA- European Space Agency (Europe)

• NASDA- National Space Development Agency (Japan)

• CNES- Centre National d'Etudes Spatiales (France )

• DARA- German Space Agency

• CSA - Canadian Space Agency

• NRSA- National Remote Sensing Agency of India
 Remote Sensing literature -Books
• Introduction to Remote Sensing. 2nd ed.,Taylor and Francis, London by
Campbell, J. B. , 1996.
• Remote Sensing and Image Interpretation. 4th ed., John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. New York by Lillesand, T. M. and R. W. Kiefer, 2000.
• Manual of remote sensing, the Sheridan Press, Falls church by
Simonette, D. S. (ed) (1983)
• Remote Sensing: Principles and Interpretation by Floyd F. Sabins
• Physical Principles of Remote Sensing (Topics in Remote Sensing) by
W. G. Rees
• Remote Sensing, Third Edition: Models and Methods for Image
Processing by Robert A. Schowengerdt
• Fundamentals of Remote Sensing and Airphoto Interpretation (5th
Edition) by Thomas Eugene Avery and Graydon Lennis L. Berlin
• Remote Sensing Geology (Springer) by Ravi P. Gupta