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COMPLEX ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION:
Complex number can be defined as an order pair (x,y) of real numbers that are to be interpreted as
points in the complex plane with rectangular coordinates x and y just as real numbers are considered as
a point on the real line. The order pair (x,y) is represented by “z” s.t
z=x+iy
Note: Every real number is a complex number with 0 as its imaginary part.

Basic purpose of invention:

Complex analysis is the study of functions that live in the complex plane, that is, functions that have
complex arguments and complex outputs. The main goal of this module is to familiarize ourselves with
such functions. Ultimately we’ll want to study their smoothness properties (that is, we’ll want to
differentiate complex functions of complex variables), and we therefore need to understand sequences
of complex numbers as well as limits in the complex plane.

BASIC ALGEBRAIC PROPERTIES:

Various properties of addition and multiplication of complex numbers are the same as for real numbers.
We list here the more basic of these algebraic properties and verify some of them. Most of the others
are verified in the exercises.
The commutative laws
(1) z1 + z2 = z2 + z1, z1z2 = z2z1
and the associative laws

(2) (z1 + z2) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3), (z1z2) z3 = z1(z2z3)

follow easily from the definitions in Sec. 1 of addition and multiplication of complex numbers and the
fact that real numbers obey these laws. For example, if
z1 = (x1, y1) and z2 = (x2, y2),
then
z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2, y1 + y2) = (x2 + x1, y2 + y1) = z2 + z1.
Verification of the rest of the above laws, as well as the distributive law

(3) z (z1 + z2) = zz1 + zz2,

is similar.
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The Complex Plane:
 Complex numbers: expressions of the form z =x+iy where
 x is called the real part of z; x = Re z, and
 y is called the imaginary part of z; y = Im z.
 Set of complex numbers: C (the complex plane)
 Real numbers: subset of the complex numbers (those whose imaginary part is zero)
 The complex plane can be identified with R

REGIONS IN A COMPLEX PLANE:

We are concerned with the set of complex numbers or points on the z plane and their closeness to one
another. Our basic tool is the concept of E neighborhood i.e.
|z-z0|<E
of a given point z0. It consists of all points z lying inside but not on a circle centered at z0 and with a
specific radius E.

INTERIOR POINT:
A point z0 is said to be interior point of the set S when there is some neighborhood of z0 that contains
only points of S.

EXTERIOR POINTS:
A point z0 is called an exterior point of S where there exists a neighborhood of it containing no point of
S.

BOUNDARY POINTS:
If z0is neither of these, it is a boundary point of S. A boundary point is therefore a appoint all of whose
neighborhood contains points in S and the points not in S. The totality of all boundary points is called
boundary of S.

FOR EXAMPLE:
The circle |z|=1 is the boundary of each of the set |z|<1 and |z|≤1.

OPEN SET:
A set is open if it contains none of its boundary points.

CLOSED SET:
A set is closed if it contains of all its boundary points.

CONNECTED SET:
An open set S is connected if each pair of points z1 and z2 in it can be joined by a polygonal line
consisting of a finite number of line segments joined end-to-end that lies entirely in S.
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EXAMPLES:
1) The open set |z|<1 is connected because line segments lies in circle.
2) The annulus 1<|z|<2 it is open. This annulus region is also a connected region.

DOMAIN:
An open set that is connected is called a domain. A domain together with some, none or all of boundary
points is referred to as a region.

PROVE THAT:
I. Re z ≤ | Re z | ≤ |z|
Let, z = x+iy
Re z = x
And Im z = y
As, x ≤ |x| for all x € R
So, Re z ≤ | Re z | (i)
2 2 2
Also, |x| ≤ |x| + |y| (|y|2 ≥ 0 )
|x|2 ≤ x2 + y2
|x| ≤ √ x2 + y2
|Re z | ≤ |z| (ii)
From (i) and (ii)
Re z ≤ | Re z | ≤ |z|
II. Im z ≤ |Im z | ≤ |z|
As, y ≤ |y| for all y € R
Im z ≤ | Im z | (iii)
2 2 2
Also, |y| ≤ |x| + |y| (|x|2 ≥ 0)

|y|2≤ x2 + y2

|y| ≤ √ x2 + y2
|Im z | ≤ |z| (iv)
From (iii) and (iv)

Im z ≤ |Im z | ≤ |z|

III. √2 |z| ≥ |Re z|+|Im z|

Consider,
(|Re z|-|Im z|) = |Re z|2 +|Im z|2 -2|Re z||Im z|
2

(|x|-|y|)2 = |x2|+|y2|-2|x||y|
Since,
(|x|-|y|)2 ≥ 0
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|x2|+|y2|-2|x||y|≥ 0 (|x|2 = x2)
x2+y2 ≥ 2|x||y|
2(x2+y2) – (x2+y2) ≥ x2+y2 +2|x||y|
2(x2+y2) ≥ (|x|+|y|)2
√2(x2+y2) ≥ |x|+|y|

√2√(x2+y2) ≥ |x|+|y|

√2 |z| ≥ |Re z|+|Im z|

2
IV. |Im (1-z + z )| < 3 when |z| ≤1
L.H.S:
|Im (1-z + z2)|≤| 1-z + z2| [|Im z|≤|z|]
≤|1|2 +|z|2 +|z|2
<1+1+1
2
|Im (1-z + z )| < 3

Complex function:
It is a function whose values are complex numbers
w=f (z)
As an example consider:

w = z2 − z, which is defined for all values of z.

Then, remembering that z = x + iy,

w = u + iv
= (x + iy) 2 − (x + iy)
= x2+ 2ixy – y2 − x –iy.
Hence, equating real and imaginary parts:
u = x2 − x – y2 and
v = 2xy − y.
If z = 2 + 3i,
For example, then x = 2, y = 3 so that
u = 4 − 2 − 9 = −7 and
v = 12 − 3 = 9,
giving w = −7 + 9i.

PRINCIPLE N ROOT FUNCTION:th

For n ≥2, the function z1/n defined a:

z1/n = n√|z| ei Arg z/n
is called the principle nth root of the function.
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LIMIT OF A COMPLEX FUNCTION:
Suppose that a complex function f is defined in a deleted neighborhood of z0 and suppose that L is a
complex number. The limit of as z tends to z0 exists and it is equal to L written as
lim 𝑓(𝑧) = L
𝑧⟶𝑧0
if for every E there exists a S>0 such that |f(z)-L| < E whenever 0 < |z-z0| <S.

EXAMPLE:
𝑧
Find a lim 𝑧̅ exists or not.
𝑧⟶0

SOLUTION:
CASE I:
Let z⟶0 along the real axis i.e. we consider the complex function
z=x+iy
z=x+0i (along real axis)
where real number x⟶0 because z⟶0
So,
(x,y)⟶ (0, 0)
𝑧 𝑥+0𝑖
lim = lim
𝑧⟶0 𝑧̅ 𝑥⟶0 𝑥−0𝑖
𝑥
= lim
𝑥⟶0 𝑥
=1 (1)

CASE II:
Let z⟶0 along the imaginary axis i.e. we consider the complex function
z=x+iy
z=0+iy (along imaginary axis axis)
𝑧 0+𝑖𝑦
lim = lim
𝑧⟶0 𝑧̅ 𝑦⟶0 0−𝑖𝑦

𝑦
= lim
𝑦⟶0 −𝑦
= -1 (2)
From (1) and (2), we conclude that limit does not exist.

REAL AND IMAGINARY PART OF LIMIT:

Suppose that f(z) = u (x,y)+iv(x,y), z0=x0+iy0 and L= u0+iv0. Then
lim 𝑓(𝑧)=L if and only if
𝑧⟶𝑧0

lim 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)= u0

(𝑥,𝑦)⟶(𝑥0,𝑦0)

And

lim 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)= v0

(𝑥,𝑦)⟶(𝑥0,𝑦0)
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CRITERION FOR NON EXISTENCE OF LIMIT:

If f approaches two complex numbers L1≠L2 for two different curves or paths through z0 then
lim 𝑓(𝑧) does not exist.
𝑧⟶𝑧0

CRITERIA OF CONTINUITY OF COMPLEX FUNCTION:

A complex function f is continuous at a point z0 if each of the following three conditions hold;

(1) lim 𝑓(𝑧) exists.

𝑧⟶𝑧0
(2) F is defined at z0.
(3) lim 𝑓(𝑧)=f(z0)
𝑧⟶𝑧0

EXAMPLE:
Show that f (z) = z is continuous on C.

SOLUTION:
Given f(z)=z
u(x,y) + iv(x,y) = x+iy
= x- iy
Here,
u(x, y) =x
and
v(x,y)= -y
now,
lim 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦)=x0
(𝑥,𝑦)⟶(𝑥0,𝑦0)
And
lim 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦)= -y0
(𝑥,𝑦)⟶(𝑥0,𝑦0)
Thus limit of given function exists on C.

THE MODULUS OF COMPLEX NUMBER:

The modulus of complex number z = x+iy is the length of the vector z
|z| = √x2 + y2

SOME USUAL PROPERTIES:

 (z1z2) z3 = z1(z2z3) (associative)
 z1z2 = z2z1 (commutative)
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 z1(z2 +z3) = z1z2 +z1z3 (distributive)

the complex conjugate:

If z =x + iy is a complex number, then the complex conjugate is z= x +iy

PROPERTIES:
 z=z
 z+w=z+w
 |z| =|z|
 zz = (x + iy)(x – iy) = x2 + y2 = |z|2
 1/z = z/zz = z /|z|2

The argument of a complex number:

The principle argument of z, called Arg z, is the value of O for which –𝜋 < 𝑂 ≤ 𝜋
 arg z = {Arg z + 2πk : k = 0,±1,±2,±3,±4,±5,…….}, z ≠0.

Complex numbers can be plotted similarly to regular numbers on a number line. The difference is that
instead of using a line, you use what looks like a coordinate plane. The plane in which you plot complex
numbers is call the complex plane also known as the Argand Diagram. When plotting points on a
coordinate plane, there's an 'x' and a 'y' component. When plotting complex numbers on the Argand
Diagram, 'x' is replaced with the real number and 'y' is replaced with the imaginary number. When you
plot the complex number 4 + 8i, plot it to the point
(a, b) or (4, 8):

The plotted complex number can be converted into a vector by drawing an arrow from the origin (0, 0)
to the plotted point.
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Once the vector is created, you will have the argument of your complex number. The argument is the
angle made by the vector of your complex number and the positive real axis. It is written like this:
 arg (z)
The z is the label used for the complex number. If you have more than one complex number, label each
with a z and a subscript to differentiate between your numbers. For example, your first complex
number would be labeled z1 and your second complex number would be labeled z2.
To find the argument, you'll need to apply trigonometry. If you draw a right triangle using the vector as
the hypotenuse, you'll see that the imaginary component becomes the opposite side and the real
component becomes the adjacent side of the triangle.
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EXAMPLE:
Find the modulus and argument of a complex number 1+2i/1-3i

SOLUTION:
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DIFFERNTIATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS:
Let f be a complex valued function with , let be a point such that ,

and is a limit point of . We say f is differentiable at if the limit

exists. In this case, we denote this limit by and call the derivative of f at .

DIFFERENTIATION RULES:
1. d/dz ( c ) = 0
2. d/dz [f(z) ± g(z)] = d/dz f(z) ± d/dz g(z)
3. d/dz [ f(z) g(z)] = g(z) f ‘(z) + f(z) g ‘(z)
4. d/dz [f(z)/g(z)] = [g(z) f ‘(z) - f(z) g ‘(z)]/(g(z))2

Theorem (Derivative Rules)

Let f and g are differentiable at z0 and let h be differentiable at g(z0 ). Let α, β ∈ C and let n ∈ Z. Then

Linearity: (αf (z) + βg(z))’ = αf ‘(z) + βg’(z)

Product: (f (z)g(z))’ = f’(z)g(z) + f (z)g’(z)
Quotient: (f (z)/g(z))’= [g(z)f’(z) − f (z)g’(z)]/g(z)2
Power: (zn)’= nzn-1
Chain: [h(g(z))]’ = h’(g(z))g’(z)

COMPLEX AND ANALYTC FUNCTION:

Function f(z) is said to be analytic at a point z0 in domain D if:
 f(z) is differentiable at z=z0
 f(z) is differentiable at neighborhood points at z=z0

example:
f(z) = z2 is differentiable at every point in the complex plane. Hence, f(z) = z2 is analytic everywhere.
A function that is analytic at every point in a complex plane is said to be an entire function.

NOTE:
Differentiability implies the continuity.
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difference between differentiability and
analyticity:
Differentiability is a property of a function that occurs at a particular point. If a function is differentiable
at every point in a set, then we can say that it is differentiable on that set. (But if that set is open, then
we would also say that the function is analytic on that set.)

NOTE:
Remember analyticity is a property a function that is defined on an open set, often times a
neighborhood of a particular point.
A NECESSARY CONDITION FOR ANALYTICITY:
Suppose f(z) = u(x,y) +iv(x,y) is differentiable at a point z=x+iy then at z, the first order partial
derivatives of u and v exists and satisfy THE CAUCHY REIMANN EQUATIONS;
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
 =
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
=−
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙
this is a necessary condition but not a sufficient condition.

CRITERIA FOR NON-ANALYTICITY:

If THE CAUCHY REIMANN EQUATION is not satisfied at every point z in the domain D then function
f(z)=u(x,y)+iv(x,y)
SUFFICIENT CONDITION FOR ANALYTICITY:
Suppose that the real functions u(x,y) and v(x,y) are continuous and have continuous first order partial
derivative in a domain D. If u and v satisfy THE CAUCHY REIMANN EQUATION all points of z,then the
complex function f(z) = u(x,y)+Iv(x,y)

L ‘ HOSPITAL RULE:
Suppose f and g are functions that are analytic at a point z0 and f(z0) = 0 = g(z0) = 0 but g’(z0) ≠ 0, then

𝑓(𝑧) 𝑓′(𝑧0)
lim =
𝑧⟶𝑧0 𝑔(𝑧) 𝑔′(𝑧0)

Holomorphic function:
In mathematics, a holomorphic function is a complex-valued function of one or more complex variables
that is, at every point of its domain, complex differentiable in a neighborhood of the point. The
existence of a complex derivative in a neighborhood is a very strong condition, for it implies that any
holomorphic function is actually infinitely differentiable and equal, locally, to its own Taylor series
(analytic). Holomorphic functions are the central objects of study in complex analysis.
Though the term analytic function is often used interchangeably with "holomorphic function", the word
"analytic" is defined in a broader sense to denote any function (real, complex, or of more general type)
that can be written as a convergent power series in a neighborhood of each point in its domain. The
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fact that all holomorphic functions are complex analytic functions, and vice versa, is a major theorem in
complex analysis.
Holomorphic functions are also sometimes referred to as regular functions. A holomorphic function
whose domain is the whole complex plane is called an entire function. The phrase "holomorphic at a
point z0" means not just differentiable at z0, but differentiable everywhere within some neighborhood
of z0 in the complex plane.

HARMONIC FUNCTION:
A real valued function Ø of two variables x and y that has continuous 1st and 2nd order partial
derivatives in a domain D and satisfies the Laplace equation is said to be harmonic in D.
i.e.

𝜕2∅ 𝜕2∅
𝜕𝑥2
+ 𝜕𝑦2
=0

PRINCIPLE VALUE OF THE COMPLEX LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION:

The complex function ln z defined by
Ln z = 𝑙𝑛𝑒 |z| +iArg z
is called the principle value of the complex logarithmic function.

PROPERTIES OF ln z:
If z1 and z2 are non-zero complex numbers and “n” is any integer then
i) ln(z1z2) = lnz1+lnz2
𝑧1
ii) ln(𝑧2) = lnz1 - ln z2
iii) ln(z1)n = nlnz1

ln AS AN INVERSE FUNCTION:
Because ln z is one of the value of the complex logarithmic ln z, it follows that e ln z =
w from ew = z
Ln z = ln|z| +iarg z
This shows that logarithmic function ln z is an inverse function of exponential
function ez.
From this, we conclude that
z
Ln e = z if -⧝ < x < ⧝ and –π < y < π.
If Ln z is defined on the above region then Ln z is an inverse function of ez.

Exponentials, trigonometric functions:

The exponential function:
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
The exponential function’s power series expansion ex = 1 + 1! + 2!
+ 3!
+ . . . . . arises from the idea that
x+y x y
b = b · b for any b > 0 and x, y ∈ R. Thus,
d/dx bx = lim [ bx + h − bx]/h
ℎ⟶0
= lim [bx · bh – bx]/ h
ℎ⟶0
= bx · lim [ bh – 1]/h
ℎ⟶0
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Trigonometric functions:
Similarly, sin x and cos x both satisfy f ‘’= −f, in radian measure: making this differential equation hold
determines what radian measure must be. The two trig functions are distinguished from each other by
the initial conditions
cos 0 = 1, cos’0 = 0
and sin 0 = 0, sin’ 0 = 1.
Presuming existence of power series expansions f(x) = c0 + c1x + c2x2 + . . . for solutions of f’’(x) = −f(x)
and differentiating term-wise, the differential equation gives 2c2 + 6c3x+ 12c4x2 + 20c5x3 . . . = − ( c0 + c1x
+ c2x2 + . . . .)
So n (n − 1)cn = −cn-2.
The first two coefficients c0, c1 determine all: c2n = (−1)nc0/(2n)! and c2n+1 = (−1)nc1/(2n + 1)!.
Thus,
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
cos x = 1 - 2!
+ 4!
- 6!
+.....
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
sin x = x - 3!
+ 5!
- 7!
+.....

These power series do converge for all x ∈ R and, in fact, for x ∈ C, so really do produce solutions to the
differential equations.

EULER’S IdEnTITy:

The power series for ex , cos x, and sin x suggest Euler’s identity
eix = cos x + isin x
at least for real x, and then for complex x, extending the definition of cosine and sine to complex
numbers by their power series expansions:
𝑖𝑥 (𝑖𝑥)2 (𝑖𝑥)3 (𝑖𝑥)4
eix = 1 + + + + +...
1! 2! 3! 4!
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
= 1 +𝑖 - -i .....
1! 2! 3!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥3 𝑥5
= (1 - 2!
+ 4!
. . . . .) + i (x - 3!
+ 5!
+ . . .)

= cos x + isin x

Corollary:
For real or complex z
cos2 z + sin2 z = 1
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COMPLEX SIN COSINE AND TAN FUNCTONS:

Periodicity:
Recall the definition: if θ ∈ R then eiθ= cos θ + isin θ. Clearly ei(θ+2π) = eiθ (because of the 2π periodicity of
the sine and cosine functions of ordinary calculus). It’s also clear—from drawing a picture of eiθ on the
unit circle, say—that 2π is the “minimal period” of the imaginary exponential, in the sense that if a ∈ R
has the property that ei(θ+a) = eiθ for every θ ∈ R then a = 2πn for some integer n.

INVERSE TRIGNOMETRIC FUNCTIONS:

arcsin(z) = -i ln(iz + )

arccos(z) = -i ln(z + )

arctan(z) = (ln(1 - iz) - (ln(1 + iz))

arccot(z) = (ln(1 - ) - (ln(1 + ))

arccsc(z) = -i ln( + )
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arcsec(z) = -i ln( + )

INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS:

arcsinh(z) = ln(z + )

arccosh(z) = ln( )

arctanh(z) = [ln(1 + z) - ln(1 - z)]

INTEGRATION IN COMPLEX ANALYSIS:

In the mathematical field of complex analysis, contour integration is a method of evaluating
certain integrals along paths in the complex plane.
Contour integration methods include:

 Direct integration of a complex-valued function along a curve in the complex plane (a contour)
 application of the Cauchy integral formula
 application of the residue theorem

PATH AND CURVES:

A path is a continuous map of a real interval to the complex plane, γ : [a, b] → C, (a < b) The set of
points γ given by range of the path γ(t) is the curve, and the path γ(t) is its parameterization.

LENGTH OF γ:
𝑏
Length of γ = ∫𝑎 |γ′ (t)|𝑑𝑡

Contours:
Contours are the class of curves on which we define contour integration. A contour is a directed curve
which is made up of a finite sequence of directed smooth curves whose endpoints are matched to give
a single direction. This requires that the sequence of curves γ1,…,γn be such that the terminal point
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of γi coincides with the initial point of γi+1, ∀ i, 1 ≤ i < n. This includes all directed smooth curves. Also,
a single point in the complex plane is considered a contour. The symbol + is often used to denote the
piecing of curves together to form a new curve. Thus we could write a contour Γ that is made up
of n curves as
C= γ1,…,γn

Cauchy Riemann equations:

The Cauchy–Riemann equations on a pair of real-valued functions of two real variables u(x,y) and v(x,y)
are the two equations:
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
 =
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝝏𝒖 𝝏𝒗
 =−
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙

Typically u and v are taken to be the real and imaginary parts respectively of a complex-valued function
of a single complex variable z = x + iy, f(x + iy) = u(x,y) + iv(x,y). Suppose that u and v are real-
differentiable at a point in an open subset of ℂ, which can be considered as functions from ℝ2 to ℝ.
This implies that the partial derivatives of u and v exist (although they need not be continuous) and we
can approximate small variations of f linearly. Then f = u + iv is complex-differentiable at that point if
and only if the partial derivatives of u and v satisfy the Cauchy–Riemann equations (1a) and (1b) at that
point. The sole existence of partial derivatives satisfying the Cauchy–Riemann equations is not enough
to ensure complex differentiability at that point. It is necessary that u and v be real differentiable,
which is a stronger condition than the existence of the partial derivatives, but in general, weaker than
continuous differentiability.

The Cauchy-Riemann Equations and Analyticity :

Given a function f(z) = u(x, y) +iv(x, y) the corresponding Cauchy-Riemann Equations are
Ux = vy, uy = −vx

ANALYTICITY ⇒ C.R.E. satisfied

To make satisfying the CRE a sufficient condition one needs the added condition that the first
derivatives of u and v are continuous on an open set. If both these conditions are true and f is defined
on an open set, then f is analytic on the open set. f0 (z0) = ux(x0, y0) + ivx(x0, y0) = −i(uy(x0, y0) +
ivy(x0, y0))

ANALYTICITY ⇐⇒ C.R.E. + Continuity of ux, uy, vx, vy

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CONTOUR INTEGRAL:
We turn now to integrals of complex-valued functions 𝑓 of the complex variable 𝑧. Such an integral is
defined in terms of the values (𝑧) along a given contour, extending from a point 𝑧 = 𝑧1 to a point 𝑧 =
𝑧2 in the complex plane. It is, therefore, a line integral; and its value depends, in general, on the
contour 𝐶 as well as on the function 𝑓. It is written as

∫ 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑐
𝑜𝑟

𝑧2

∫ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
𝑧1

Note that the function (𝑧) = 1/𝑧 is analytic at each nonzero point in the finite plane. But the function (𝑧)
= | 𝑧|2 is not analytic at any point since its derivative exists only at 𝑧 = 0 and not throughout any
neighborhood. An entire function is a function that is analytic at each point in the entire finite plane.
Since the derivative of a polynomial exists everywhere, it follows that every polynomial is an entire
function.

PROPERTIES OF CONTOUR INTEGRAL:

Suppose that f and g are continuous in a domain D and C is a smooth curve lying entirely in D. Then,
1) ∫𝑐 𝑘 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = k ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
where k is a complex constant.
2)∫𝑐 ( 𝑓 (𝑧) + 𝑔(𝑧))𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝑐 𝑔(𝑧)𝑑𝑧

3)∫𝑐 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∫𝑐1 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 + ∫𝑐2 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧

where c consists of smooth curves joined c 1 and c2.
4) ∫−𝑐 𝑓 (𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = - ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
where “–c” denotes the curve having opposite orientation.

EVALUATION OF CONTOUR INTEGRALS:

If f is continuous on a smooth curve C given by the parameterization z(t) = x(t) + iy(t) a≤t≤b.
𝑏

∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = ∮ 𝑓 (𝑧(𝑡))𝑧′(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑐 𝑎

The ML formula:.
If a contour C has arc length L and if |f(z)| ≤ M along C, then ∫c f(z) dz ≤ ML.
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Proof:
According to the triangle inequality for contour integrals,

∫c f(z) dz ≤ ∫c |f(z)| |dz|

≤ ∫c M|dz|

= ML.

CAUCHY GOURSAT THEOREM:

Intro: In this section, we will concentrate on contour integrals where the contour C is a simple closed
curve where the positive contour clock wise orientation specially we will see that when f is analytic in a
special kind of domain D, then value of the contour integral ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 is the same for any closed curve
C that lies entirely within . This theorem is called “THE CAUCHY GOURSAT THEOREM” is one of the
fundamental theorem of complex analysis. While discussing the said theorem we need to distinguish
two kinds of domain in the complex plane:

1) Simply Connected Domains

2) Multiply Connected Domains
A domain D is simply connected if every simple closed contour C lies entirely in D can be shrunk
to a point without leaving D.

THEOREM:
Suppose that a function “f” is analytic in a simply connected domain D then for every simple
closed contour C in D

∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑐

EXAMPLE:
1 1
Evaluate ∮𝑐 𝑧2
𝑑𝑧 where the contour C is the ellipse (x-2)2 + 4 (y-5)2 = 1

SOLUTION:
As center of ellipse is (h,k). So c = (2,5)

Since a > b and a2 = 4

So, a = 4
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And b2 = 1

So, b = 1

As the function f (z) = 1/z2 is analytic within and on C but not analytic at z = 0 but this point does not lie
in the given contour C. Therefore, The Cauchy Goursat Theorem is applicable and hence,

1
∮ 𝑑𝑧 = 0
𝑧2
𝑐

THEOREM:
If z0 is any constant complex number interior to any simple closed contour C then for “n” any
integer, we have:

𝑑𝑧 2𝜋𝑖, 𝑛=1
∮ = {
(𝑧 − 𝑧0)𝑛 0, 𝑛≠1
𝑐

CAUCHY INTEGRAL FORMULA AND THEIR

CONSEQUENCES:
As we saw the importance of The Cauchy Goursat Theorem in the evaluation of contour
integrals. Now, we discuss several more consequences of The Cauchy Goursat Theorem:

1)The value of analytic function f at any point z0 in a simply connected domain D can be represented by
a contour integral. Now, we show that an analytic function f in a simply connected domain possesses
derivatives of all orders. For this, we have Cauchy Two Integral Formulas:

FIRST FORMULA:
Suppose that f is analytic in a simply connected domain D and C is any closed curve contour lying
entirely within D. Then for any point z0 within C is

1 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
f(z0) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝑐 (𝑧−𝑧0)

EXAMPLE:
𝑧2−4𝑧+4
Evaluate ∮𝑐 𝑧+𝑖
𝑑𝑧 where C is the circle |z| = 2

SOLUTION:
It is a circle having center (0, 0) and radius 2.
First, we identify the function
f(z) = z2 – 4z +4
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and z = z0 so, z0 = -i
which is within the circle
Next, we observe that given function is analytic within and on C therefore, by CAUCHY
INTEGRAL FORMULA we have
𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
∮𝑐 (𝑧−𝑧0)
= 2πi f (z0)
= 2πi f (-i)
= 2πi (3+4i)
= 6πi - 8π

SECOND FORMULA:
Suppose that f is analytic in a simply connected domain D and C is any simple closed contour
lying entirely within D. Then for any point z0 within C. the nth derivative of the function at z0 is

𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
f(n)(z0) = ∮
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧−𝑧0)𝑛+1

Example:
𝑒^2𝑧
Evaluate ∮𝑐 𝑑𝑧 where C: |z| = 1
𝑧4

SOLUTION:
By CAUCHY’S FORMULA FOR DERIVATIVES f (z) = e2z. Then,

𝑓(𝑧) 3!
∮𝑐 𝑑𝑧 = f’’’ (0)
𝑧4 2𝜋𝑖

8
= 𝜋𝑖
3

CAUCHY INEQUALITY:
Suppose that f is analytic in a simply connected domain D and C is the circle defined |z-z0| = r that lies
entirely in D if f(z) ≤ M for all points z on C then
𝑛!𝑀
|f(n)(z0)| ≤ 𝑟^𝑛

PROOF:
From the given hypothesis

𝑓(𝑧) |𝑓(𝑧)| 𝑧1 |𝑧1|

|(𝑧−𝑧0)𝑛+1 | = [| | = ]
|(𝑧−𝑧0)𝑛+1| 𝑧2 |𝑧2|

|𝑓(𝑧)|
= |(𝑟)𝑛+1|
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𝑀
≤ (𝑟)𝑛+1

By ML estimation lemma inequality on CAUCHY INTEGRAL FORMULA FOR DERIVATIVE

𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
f(n)(z0) = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝑐 (𝑧−𝑧0)𝑛+1

𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
| f(n)(z0)| = | ∮ |
2𝜋𝑖 𝑐 (𝑧−𝑧0)𝑛+1

𝑛! 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧
=2𝜋 ∮𝑐 (𝑧−𝑧0)𝑛+1

𝑛! 𝑀
≤ 2𝜋𝑖 . (𝑟)𝑛+1

𝑛!𝑀
|f(n)(z0)| ≤ 𝑟^𝑛

LIOUVILLE’S THEOREM:

STATEMENT:
The only bounded entire functions are constants.

PROOF:
We know BY CAUCHY INEQUALITY:
𝑛!𝑀
| f(n)(a)| ≤ 𝑟^𝑛 (1)

Where “a” is any point in the z-plane and “r” is the radius of the circle |z-a| = r

Put r=1
1!𝑀
| f(n)(a)| ≤ 𝑟^1

𝑀
≤ 𝑟

As r approaches to infinity because the circle is too large

𝑀
| f(n)(a)| ≤ ⧝

| f(n)(a)| = 0

So, f(z) is constant.

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MORERA’S THEOREM:

(converse of Cauchy theorem)

If f is continuous in a simply connected domain D and integral ∮𝑐 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 0 for every closed contour C
in D then f is analytic in D.

Proof:
𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑧)
∮𝑐 (1)

Where f(z) is single valued function.

Taking point z to z0 and integrating with any path, the integral remain same
𝑧
∮𝑧0 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑧) (2)

If f(z) = u+iv

Where u= u(x, y)

And v=v(x, y)

So, from (2) we get

(𝑥,𝑦)

∮ (𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣)(𝑑𝑥 + 𝑖𝑑𝑦) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣
(𝑥0,𝑦0)

Or
(𝑥,𝑦) (𝑥,𝑦)

∮ (𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦) + 𝑖 ∮ (𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦) = 𝑢 + 𝑖𝑣

(𝑥0,𝑦0) (𝑥0,𝑦0)

Comparing real and imaginary parts

(𝑥,𝑦)
u =∮(𝑥0,𝑦0)(𝑢𝑑𝑥 − 𝑣𝑑𝑦 )

(𝑥,𝑦)
v = ∮(𝑥0,𝑦0)(𝑣𝑑𝑥 + 𝑢𝑑𝑦)

Now

𝜕𝑢
, = -u
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑥
=v
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𝜕𝑢
= -v
𝜕𝑦

𝜕𝑣
𝜕𝑦
=u

Since, CAUCHY REIMANN EQUATION is satisfied i.e.

∂u ∂v
=
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=−
∂y ∂x

So, f(z) is analytic.

f’ (z) is also analytic.

Then, f (z) is also analytic

SEQUENCE OF SERIES
A sequence of series is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers and whose range is the
subset of a complex number C.

F: N → C, for each positive integral N there is a complex number C.

If Lim n→∞{Zn}=L, we say that the sequence {Zn} is convergent, In other words, the sequence
{Zn}converges to L if for each positive real number ϵ an integer N can be found s.t |Zn-L| < ϵ whenever
n>N.

CRITERIA FOR CONVERGENCE

{Zn}; = a+ib

If Re {Zn} converges to Re {L} =a and Im {Zn} converges to Im {L}=b

Series:
An infinite series or series of the complex number

∑⧝𝑘=1 𝑧𝑘 = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + -------------- is convergent if the sequence of partial sum {∂n}

where ∂n=Z1+Z2+------+Zn converges. If ∂n→L as n→∞, we say that the series converges to L or the sum
of the series L.

GEOMETRIC SERIES
A geometric series is any series of the form ∑⧝ k-1 2 th
𝑘=1 a z = a+az+az +---- If the n term of the sequence

of the partial sum is ∂n = a+ az+-----+azn-1

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∂n = a (1-Zn) :∙ r=z
1-Z :∙ ∂n= a(1-rn)
1-r
Now, Zn→0 as n→∞ when |z|< 1 and in this case ∂n converges to,
𝑎
∂n = 1−𝑧
A geometric series diverges when |Z| ≥ 1.

A necessary condition for convergence:

∞
If ∑ Zk converges then limk→∞ Zk = 0
K=1

Absolute AND conditional convergence:

∞ ∞ ∞
An infinite series ∑ Zk is absolutely convergent if ∑ |Zk| converges and an infinite series ∑ Zk is
K=1 K=1 K=1
∞
Conditional convergent if is converges but ∑|Zk| diverges.
K=1

EXAMPLE:
𝑖𝑘
An infinite series ∑⧝
𝑘=1 𝑘2
𝑖𝑘 1
This is absolutely convergent since ∑⧝
𝑘=1 | | = ∑⧝
𝑘=1
𝑘2 𝑘2
1
By p-series test converges if k>1
𝑛𝑘
1
Therefore, ∑⧝
𝑘=1 𝑘 2 converges by p-series test.
So, absolute convergence.
Hence, convergence.

TEST FOR CONVERGENCE

Ratio Test:
Suppose∑⧝
𝑘=1 𝑧𝑘 is a series of non-zero complex term s.t
lim |Zn + 1/ Zn|= L
𝑛⟶⧝
1. If L< 1, series converges absolutely
2. If L>1, series diverges
3. If L= 1, test fails
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Root Test:
𝑛
Suppose ∑⧝
𝑘=1 𝑧𝑘 is a series of non-zero complex term s.t = lim √𝑍𝑛 = L
𝑛⟶⧝

1. If L< 1, series converges absolutely

2. If L>1, series diverges
3. If L= 1, test fails (in conclusive)

POWER SERIES
The notion of power series is important in the study of analytic functions. An infinite series of the form
∞
∑ ak(Z-Zo)k =ao(Z-Zo)o+a1(Z-Zo)1+---------+ak-1(Z-Zo)k-1
k=0

①←
+ak( Z-Z0)+
Where the coefficient ak are complex constant and the ① is the power series in (Z-Zo) the power series
is centered at Zo

Convergence Criteria:
Every power series in ① has a radius of convergence and we call it a circle of convergence.
A power series convergence absolutely at all the points Z written its center of convergence i-e for all
Z|Z-Zo| < R and for all Z exterior to the circle Z|Z-Zo| > R. the radius of convergence can be,
1. If R=O, the series convergence to the center
2. If R is finite positive number lying interior to the circle, then the series converges.
3. If R=∞ then series diverges. |Z-Zo| = R

Relation Between Power series and analytic

function

TAyLOR’S THEOREM:
Let f be analytical within a domain D and let Zo be a point in D then, f has the series representation.
∞
f (z) = ∑ f((k) (Zo) (Z-Zo)k
k=0
K!
Valid for the largest circle with center at Zo and radius R that lies entirely in D
Note: When Taylor’s series is defined at Zo = 0 then this become a Maclaurin series

RADIUS OF CONVERGENCE
EXAMPLE:
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Find the radius of convergence of
f (Z) = 3-i
1-i+Z
With center Z0 = 4- 2i. What is the radius of convergence?

Solution:
Given function is analytic at all points except Z=i-1
Now, r = | Z-Z0|
r = |i-1-4+2i|
r = |3i-5|
r = √25 + 9
r = √34
This r = √34 is radius of convergence of given Taylor series.

Remark:
∞ ∞
If the two power series with center Zo ∑ ak(Z-Zo)K and ∑ bk(Z-Zo)k represent the same function
K=0 k=0
f and have the same radius of convergence, then:
ak = bk = f(k) (Zo) , k=0,1,2,----
K!
This means that the power of function with center of Zo is unique

LAURENT SERIES
If a complex function f fails to be analytic at a point Z = Zo then this point is said to be singularity or
singular point of the function.

LAUREnT’S THEOREM:
Let f be analytic within the annulus domain D defined by r < |z-z0| < R, then f has the series
representation

f (z) = ∑⧝
𝑘= −⧝ 𝑎𝑘(𝑧 − 𝑧0)
𝑘

valid for r < |z-z0| < R. The coefficient ak is given by

1 𝑓(𝑠)𝑑𝑠
ak = 2𝜋𝑖 ∮𝑐 (𝑠−𝑧0)𝑘+1

k = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3 . . .

where “c” is the simple closed curve that lies entirely within D.

ZEROES AND POLES:

Suppose z=z0 is an isolated singularity of a complex function f and that is
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f (z) = ∑⧝
𝑘= −⧝ 𝑎𝑘(𝑧 − 𝑧0)
𝑘

is the Laurent representation of f valid punctured disc 0 < |z-z0| < R.

CLASSIFICATION OF ISOLATED SINGULAR POINTS:

An isolated singular points z=z0 of a complex function f is given a classification depending on whether
the principle part of its Laurent expansion contain zero a finite number of terms or an infinite number of
terms.

(1) If the principle contains the zero number of the terms then z=z0 is a removable singularity.

e.g.
sinz 1 𝑧3 𝑧5
z
= 𝑧 [z- 3!
+ 5!
+ . . . .]

𝑧2 𝑧4
= 1- + +....
3! 5!

(2) If the principle part contains the finite number of non-zero terms then z=z0 is called a pole.
A pole of order 1 is called a SIMPLE POLE.
e.g.
sinz 1 𝑧3 𝑧5
z
= 𝑧2 [z- 3!
+ 5!
+ . . . .]

1 𝑧 𝑧3
= 𝑧 - 3! + 5!
+....

1
Here 𝑧 is a simple pole of order 1 with center 0.

(3) If the principle part contains an infinitely many number of non-zero terms then
z=z0 is called an essential singularity.
e.g. e1/z , e3/z.

ZEROS:
A number z0 is a zero of the function “f” if f (z0) = 0. We say that an analytic function “f” has a
zero of order “n” at z = z0.

ZEROS OF ORDER “n”

A function that is analytic in some disc |z-z0| < R has a zero of order “n” at z = z0if and only if “f”
can be written as
f(z) = (z-z0)n Ø(z)
where Ø is analytic at z = z0 and Ø(z0) ≠ 0.

ORDER OF A ZERO:
Example:
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The analytic function f (z) = z sin z2 has a zero at z=0.
𝑧3 𝑧5
Now, sin z = z- 3!
+ 5!
+....

𝑧6 𝑧10
sin z2 = z2- 3!
+ 5!
+....

Therefore,
𝑧6 𝑧10
f (z) = z [z2- 3!
+ 5!
+ . . . .]

𝑧4 𝑧8
f (z) = z3 [1 - 3!
+ 5!
+ . . . .]

f (z) = z3 Ø(z)
𝑧4 𝑧8
where Ø (z) = 1 - 3!
+ 5!
+....

0 0
Ø (0) = 1 - + +....
3! 5!

Ø (0) = 1

≠0

From this we conclude that z = 0 is a zero of order 3.

POLE OF ORdER “n”:

A function “f” is analytic in a punctured disc 0 < |z-z0| < R has a pole of order “n” at z = z0 if and only if
“f” can be written as

Ø(z)
f (z) = (z−z0)n

where Ø(z) is analytic at z = z0 and Ø (z0) ≠ 0.

EXAMPLE:
2𝑧+5
Consider f (z) = (𝑧−1)(𝑧+5)(𝑧−2)4

SOLUTION:
f (z) = 2z+5

From the given function we have z0 = 1, z0 = -5 has zeros of order 1 where Ø (z0) = Ø (1)

= 2 (1) +5

=7
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≠ 0.

Also, f(z) has zeros of order 4 at z0 = 2.

Here Ø (z0) = Ø (2)

= 2(2) + 5

=9

≠ 0.

So, f has a simple pole at z0 = 1, -5 and has a pole of order 4 at z0 = 2.

RESIDUE:
1
Residue is the coefficient of in the given Laurent series and is called the residue of the function “f”
𝑧−𝑧0
at z = z0.

RESIDUE AT A SIMPLE POLE:

If “f” has a simple pole at z = z0 then

Res (f (z), z0) = lim (𝑧 − 𝑧0) 𝑓(𝑧)

𝑧⟶𝑧0

RESIDUE AT ASIMPLE POLE:

If “f” has a pole of order “n” at z = z0 then
1
Res (f (z), z0) =(𝑛−1)! lim𝑛−1 (𝑧 − 𝑧0)𝑛 𝑓(𝑧)
𝑑
𝑧⟶𝑧0
𝑑𝑧𝑛−1

EXAMPLE:
1
f(z) = (𝑧−3)(𝑧−1)2

f(z) has a simple pole of order 1 at z0 = 3 and has a pole of order 2 at z0 = 1.

Res (f (z), 3) = lim (𝑧 − 3) 𝑓(𝑧)

𝑧⟶3

1
where f (z) = (𝑧−3)(𝑧−1)2

(𝑧−3)
= lim
𝑧⟶3 (𝑧−3)(𝑧−1)2

1
=4

Now,
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1 1
Res (f (z), 1) = (2−1)! lim2−1 (𝑧 − 1)2 (𝑧−3)(𝑧−1)2
𝑑
𝑧⟶1
𝑑𝑧2−1

𝑑 1
= lim
𝑧⟶1 𝑑𝑧 (𝑧−3)

−1
= lim [(𝑧−3)2 ]
𝑧⟶1

−1
= 4

CAUCHy’S RESIdUE THEOREM:

Let D be the simply connected domain and C a simple closed contour lying entirely within. If a
function “f” is analytic on and with C except at a finite number of isolated singularities z 1, z2, z3. .
. zn within C then

∮ 𝑓(𝑧)𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 ∑ 𝑅𝑒𝑠 (𝑓 (𝑧), 𝑧𝑘 )

𝑐 𝑘=1

𝑐2

𝑐𝑘

𝑐1

EXAMPLE:
1
Evaluate ∮𝑐 (𝑧−3)(𝑧−1)2
𝑑𝑧 where the contour C is the circle |z| = 2.

SOLUTION:
The contour C is the circle |z| = 2. Since, the only pole z = 1 lies within the circle |z|=2.

Now,
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1
∮𝑐 (𝑧−3)(𝑧−1)2
𝑑𝑧 = 2𝜋𝑖 [Res (f (z), 1]

1 1
=2πi (2−1)!
lim2−1 (𝑧 − 1)2 (𝑧−3)(𝑧−1)2
𝑑
𝑧⟶1 2−1
𝑑𝑧

𝑑 1
=2πi lim
𝑧⟶1 𝑑𝑧 (𝑧−3)

−1
=2πi lim [(𝑧−3)2 ]
𝑧⟶1

−1
=2πi ( 4
)

−𝑖𝜋
=
2

NOTE:
𝑔(𝑧)
(1) Suppose the function “f” can be written as a quotient f(z) =
ℎ(𝑧)
Where “g” and “h” are analytic at z=z0 if g(z0) ≠ 0 and if the function “h” has a zero of order “1”
𝑔(𝑧0 )
at z0 then “f” has a simple pole at z=z0 and in this case Res (f (z) , z0) =
ℎ ′ (𝑧0 )
Since, function “f” has a zero of order “1” at z0, we must have h(z0) = 0 and ℎ ′ (𝑧0 ) ≠ 0.
(2) By the definition of derivative,
ℎ(𝑧)−ℎ(𝑧0 )
h’(z) = lim
𝑧⟶𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0
ℎ(𝑧)−0
= lim
𝑧⟶𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0
Therefore, in this case

Res (f (z), z0) = lim (𝑧 − 𝑧0) 𝑓(𝑧)

𝑧⟶𝑧0

𝑔(𝑧)
Res (h (z), z0) = lim (𝑧 − 𝑧0) ℎ(𝑧)
𝑧⟶𝑧0

𝑔(𝑧)/ℎ(𝑧)
Res (f (z), z0) = lim
𝑧⟶𝑧0 𝑧−𝑧0

𝑔(𝑧0 )
Res (f (z), z0) =
ℎ ′ (𝑧0 )
P

Example:
Evaluate ∮𝑐 tan 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 where C is the circle |z|=2.

SOLUTION:
h(z) = cos z

h’(z) = -sin z

𝑔(𝑧0 )
Using, Res (f (z), z0) =
ℎ ′ (𝑧0)

𝜋
Where z0 =
2

𝜋 sin 𝜋/2
Res (f (z), ) =
2 − sin 𝜋/2

1
=
−1

=-1