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in

ME 3 49 3 - MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

UNIT -1

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

TWO MARKS QUESTIONS:

1. What is rake angle? What is the effect of nose radius in tools?

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The angle between the tool face and the line parallel to the base of the tool is

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known as side rake angle. It is used to control chip flow.

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2. What is tool?

The various angles of tools are mentioned in a numerical number in particular

order. That is known as tool signature.

3. Explain the nose radius? ee

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It is the joining of side and end cutting edges by means of small radius in
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order to increase the tool life and better surface finish on the work piece.

4. Name the factors that contribute to poor surface finish in cutting?

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• Cutting speed

• Feed
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• Depth of cut.

5. What is orthogonal cutting?

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The cutting edge of tool is perpendicular to the work piece axis

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6. Define oblique cutting?

Oblique cutting: - The cutting edge is inclined at an acute angle with normal to

the cutting velocity vector is called oblique cutting process

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7. What is cutting force?

The sheared material begins to flow along the cutting tool face in the form of

small pieces . The compressive force applied to form the chip is called cutting

force

8. What is chip reduction co-efficient ?

The reciprocal of chip thickness ratio is called chip reduction co-

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efficient. K=1/r

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9. What is the function of chip breakers?

The chip breakers are used to break the chips into small pieces for removal,

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safety and to prevent both the machine and work damage

10. Define machinability of metal?

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Machinability is defined as the ease with which a material can be satisfactorily

machined
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11. How tool life is defined?

Tool life is defined as the time elapsed between two consecutive tool
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resharpening. During this period the tool serves effectively and efficiently

12. Write Taylor’s tool life equation?

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Taylor’s tool life equation, VT =C
w.

Where, V= Cutting speed in m/min.

T= Tool life in minute

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C= Constant

N= Index depends upon tool and work.

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13. What are the factors affecting tool life?

Cutting speed

Feed and depth of

cut Tool geomentry

Tool material

Cutting fluid

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Work material

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Rigidity of work, tool and machine

14.What are the four important characteristics of materials used for cutting

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tools?

Hot hardness
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Wear resistance

High thermal conductivity

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Resistance to thermal shock

Easy to grind and sharpen .

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Low mechanical and chemical affinity for the work material

15. Name the various cutting tool materials.

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Carbon tool steel

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High speed steel

Cemented
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carbides Ceramics

Diamonds

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16. What are the functions of cutting fluids?

It is used to cool the cutting tool and work piece.

It lubricates the cutting tool and thus reduces the co-efficient of friction

between tool and work.

It improves the surface finish as stated earlier.

It causes the chips to break up into small parts.

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It protects the finished surface from corrosion.

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It washes away the chips from the tool. It prevents the tool from

fouling. It prevents corrosion of work and machine

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17. What are the factors responsible for built-up edge in cutting tools?

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During cutting process, the interface temperature and pressure are quite high
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and also high friction between tool chip interfaces causes the chip material to

weld itself to the tool face near the nose. This is called built up edge
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18. List the essential characteristics of a cutting fluid?

It should have good lubricating properties to reduce frictional forces and to

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decrease the power consumption.

High heat absorbing capacity.

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It should have a high specific heat, high heat conductivity and high film co-
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efficient.

High flash point.

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It should be odorless

It should be non –corrosive to work and tool.

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19. What are the causes of wear?

The tool is subjected to three important factors such as force,

temperature and sliding action due tool.

20. Briefly, differentiate between orthogonal cutting and oblique cutting?

Sl. Orthogonal cutting Oblique cutting

No.
1. The cutting edge of the tool is The cutting edge is inclined at an acute

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perpendicular to the cutting velocity angle with the normal to the cutting

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vector. velocity vector
2. The chip flows over the tool face and the The chip flows on the tool face making an

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direction of chip-flow velocity is normal angel with the normal on the cutting edge.
to the cutting edge. ee
3. The cutting edge clears the width of the The cutting edge may or may not clear the
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work piece on either ends.(i.e No side width of the work piece.
flow)
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4. The maximum chip thickness occurs at its The maximum chip thickness may not
middle. occur at the middle.
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21. Give two examples for orthogonal cutting.

Turning, facing, thread cutting and parting off

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QUESTION BANK
UNIT-I

MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING

PART-B

1. Explain orthogonal cutting and oblique cutting with its neat sketches and compare?

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Orthogonal metal cutting Oblique metal cutting

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Cutting edge of the tool is
perpendicular to the direction The cutting edge is inclined
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of tool travel. at an angle less than 90 to
the direction of tool travel.
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The direction of chip flow is

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perpendicular to the cutting The chip flows on the tool

edge. face making an angle.
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The chip coils in a tight flat

spiral
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The chip flows side ways

in a long curl.
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For same feed and depth of

cut the force which shears
The cutting force acts on
the metal acts on smaller
larger area and so tool life
areas. So the life of the tool
is more.
is less.

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Produces sharp corners.

Produces a chamfer at the

end of the cut

For the same depth of cut

Smaller length of cutting greater length of cutting
edge is in contact with the edge is in contact with the
work. work.

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Generally parting off in This method of cutting is
lathe, broaching and slotting used in almost all

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operations are done in this machining operations.
method.

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2. What is the tool life equation and state the factor affecting the tool life?

Tool life

 Tool wear is a time dependent process. As cutting proceeds, the amount of tool wear
increases gradually. But tool wear must not be allowed to go beyond a certain limit in
order to avoid tool failure. The most important wear type from the process point of
view is the flank wear, therefore the parameter which has to be controlled is the width
of flank wear land, VB. This parameter must not exceed an initially set safe limit,
which is about 0.4 mm for carbide cutting tools. The safe limit is referred to as
allowable wear land (wear criterion),

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 . The cutting time required for the cutting tool to develop a flank wear land of width

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is called tool life, T, a fundamental parameter in machining. The general relationship
of VB versus cutting time is shown in the figure (so-called wear curve). Although the
wear curve shown is for flank wear, a similar relationship occurs for other wear

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types. The figure shows also how to define the tool life T for a given wear criterion
VBk
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3. What is machinability? And explain.
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Machinability
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 Machinability is a term indicating how the work material responds to the cutting
process. In the most general case good machinability means that material is cut with
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good surface finish, long tool life, low force and power requirements, and low cost.

 Machinability of different materials

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 Steels Leaded steels: lead acts as a solid lubricant in cutting to improve considerably
machinability.
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 Resulphurized steels: sulphur forms inclusions that act as stress raisers in the chip
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formation zone thus increasing machinability.

 Difficult-to-cut steels: a group of steels of low machinability, such as stainless steels,

high manganese steels, precipitation-hardening steels.

 Other metals

 Aluminum: easy-to-cut material except for some cast aluminum alloys with silicon
content that may be abrasive.

 Cast iron: gray cast iron is generally easy-to-cut material, but some modifications and
alloys are abrasive or very hard and may cause various problems in cutting.
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 Cooper-based alloys: easy to machine metals. Bronzes are more difficult to machine
than brass.

 Selection of cutting conditions

 For each machining operation, a proper set of cutting conditions must be selected
during the process planning. Decision must be made about all three elements of
cutting conditions,

 Depth of cut

 Feed

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g.i
 Cutting speed

 There are two types of machining operations:

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 Roughing operations: the primary objective of any roughing operation is to remove as
much as possible material from the work piece for as short as possible machining
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time. In roughing operation, quality of machining is of a minor concern.
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4. Explain the various tool materials

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Cutting tool materials

Carbon Steels

It is the oldest of tool material. The carbon content is 0.6~1.5% with small quantities of silicon,
Chromium, manganese, and vanadium to refine grain size. Maximum hardness is about HRC 62. This
material has low wear resistance and low hot hardness. The use of these materials now is very limited.

High-speed steel (HSS)

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First produced in 1900s. They are highly alloyed with vanadium, cobalt, molybdenum, tungsten and
Chromium added to increase hot hardness and wear resistance. Can be hardened to various depths by

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appropriate heat treating up to cold hardness in the range of HRC 63-65. The cobalt component give
the material a hot hardness value much greater than carbon steels. The high toughness and good wear
resistance make HSS suitable for all type of cutting tools with complex shapes for relatively low to

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medium cutting speeds. The most widely used tool material today for taps, drills, reamers, gear tools,
end cutters, slitting, broaches, etc.

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Cemented Carbides
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Introduced in the 1930s. These are the most important tool materials today because of their high hot
hardness and wear resistance. The main disadvantage of cemented carbides is their low toughness.
These materials are produced by powder metallurgy methods, sintering grains of tungsten carbide
(WC) in a cobalt (Co) matrix (it provides toughness). There may be other carbides in the mixture, such
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as titanium carbide (TiC) and/or tantalum carbide (TaC) in addition to WC.

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Ceramics
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Ceramic materials are composed primarily of fine-grained, high-purity aluminum oxide (Al2O3),
pressed and sintered with no binder. Two types are available:
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White, or cold-pressed ceramics, which consists of only Al2O3 cold pressed into inserts and sintered
at high temperature.

5. Write short notes on surface finish?

Surface finish

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 The machining processes generate a wide variety of surface textures. Surface texture consists
of the repetitive and/or random deviations from the ideal smooth surface. These deviations are

 Roughness: small, finely spaced surface irregularities (micro irregularities)

 Waviness: surface irregularities of grater spacing (macro irregularities)

 Lay: predominant direction of surface texture

 Three main factors make the surface roughness the most important of these parameters:

Fatigue life: the service life of a component under cyclic stress (fatigue life) is much shorter if

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
the surface roughness is high

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 Bearing properties: a perfectly smooth surface is not a good bearing because it cannot maintain
a lubricating film.

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6. What are the different types of cutting fluids used in machining process?
En

Cutting fluids
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 Cutting fluid (coolant) is any liquid or gas that is applied to the chip and/or cutting tool to
improve cutting performance. A very few cutting operations are performed dry, i.e., without
the application of cutting fluids. Generally, it is essential that cutting fluids be applied to all
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machining operations.

Cutting fluids serve three principle functions:

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 To remove heat in cutting: the effective cooling action of the cutting fluid depends on the
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method of application, type of the cutting fluid, the fluid flow rate and pressure. The most
effective cooling is provided by mist application combined with flooding. Application of fluids
to the tool flank, especially under pressure, ensures better cooling that typical application to the
chip but is less convenient.

7. Write short notes tool wear?

Tool wear
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The life of a cutting tool can be terminated by a number of means, although they fall broadly into
two main categories:
 Gradual wearing of certain regions of the face and flank of the cutting tool, and abrupt tool
failure. Considering the more desirable case the life of a cutting tool is therefore determined
by the amount of wear that has occurred on the tool profile and which reduces the efficiency of
cutting to an unacceptable level, or eventually causes tool failure.

 Gradual wear occurs at three principal locations on a cutting tool. Accordingly, three main
types of tool wear can be distinguished,

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1. Crater wear

2. Flank wear

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3. Corner wear

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Crater wear: consists of a concave section on the tool face formed by the action of the chip sliding on
the surface. Crater wear affects the mechanics of the process increasing the actual rake angle of the
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cutting tool and consequently, making cutting easier. At the same time, the crater wear weakens the
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tool wedge and increases the possibility for tool breakage. In general, crater wear is of a relatively
small concern.
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Flank wear: occurs on the tool flank as a result of friction between the machined surface of the
workpiece and the tool flank. Flank wear appears in the form of so-called wear land and is measured
by the width of this wear land, VB, Flank wear affects to the great extend the mechanics of cutting.
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Cutting forces increase significantly with flank wear. If the amount of flank wear exceeds some
critical value (VB > 0.5~0.6 mm), the excessive cutting force may cause tool failure.
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w.

Corner wear: occurs on the tool corner. Can be considered as a part of the wear land and respectively
flank wear since there is no distinguished boundary between the corner wear and flank wear land. We
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consider corner wear as a separate wear type because of its importance for the precision of machining.
Corner wear actually shortens the cutting tool thus increasing gradually the dimension of machined
surface and introducing a significant dimensional error in machining, which can reach values of about
0.03~0.05 mm.

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UNIT – 2

TURNING MACHINES

1. What is swing diameter?

The largest diameter of work that will revolve without touching the bed and is twice the

height of the center measured from the bed of the lathe.

2. write the specifications of a typical lathe?

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I, The length of bed.

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ii, maximum distance between dead and live

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centres. iii, Types of bed( i,e) straight, semi gap

or gap type. iv, The height of dead centres. e

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v, swing over the
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bed. vi, width of the

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bed. vii, spindle bore.

viii, spindle speed.

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ix, H.P. of main motor and rpm.

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x, Number of spindle speeds. xi,

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spindle nose diameter.

xii, Feeds .

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3. Write down the names of any four lathe accessories?

lathe centres, catch plates, carriers, chucks, mandrels and rests.

4. What are the operations can be performed on a lathe?

Turning, facing, forming, knurling, chamfering, thread cutting, drilling, boring,

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recessing, tapping, grooving etc.

5. Write down the names of any four lathe accessories?

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lathe centres, catch plates, carriers, chucks, mandrels and rests.

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6. What are the functions of feed rod and lead screw?

e
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Feed rod:

It is used to guide the carriage in a straight line when it moves along the bed.
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Lead screw:
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It is used to move the carriage while thread cutting operation is carried out. It also

ensures the proper speed of work relative to the tool thread cutting operation.
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7.Mention four types of chucks used in a machine shop?

w.

i, Three jaw chuck (or) self centering chuck ii, Four jaw chuck (or) independent
ww

chuck. iii, magnetic chuck.

8. What is the application of Air operated chuck?

Heavy work piece are mounted with the help of air operated chucks because they

will require more power to hold the work piece.

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9. What is the purpose of mandrel? How many types of mandrels is there in

common use?

Mandrels are used for holding hollow work pieces.

1. plain mandrel

2. collar mandrel

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3. cone mandrel

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4. special mandrel

5. step mandrel

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6. Expansion mandrel

7. Gang mandrel
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10. What is thread cutting operation?

Thread cutting is the operation of producing continues helical groove on a cylindrical

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work piece.
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11.Name any four work holding devices?

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1, collets

2, chucks
w.

3, Fixtures
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4, power chucks

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12.Define automatic machine?

Automatic machine or simply automats are machines tools in which all the

operations required to finish off the work piece are done automatically with out the

attention of an operator.

13. What are the advantages of automatic lathes?

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a, Mass production of identical parts.

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b, High accuracy is maintained.

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c, Time of production is minimized. d,
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The bar stock is feed automatically.
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UNIT II

TURNING MACHINES

PART -B

1. Sketch a center lathe and mention various parts?

Center Lathes

 A lathe is a machine tool that rotates the work piece against a tool whose position it
controls. The spindle is the part of the lathe that rotates. Various work holding
attachments such as three jaw chucks, collets, and centers can be held in the spindle.
The spindle is driven by an electric motor through a system of belt drives and gear

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trains. Spindle rotational speed is controlled by varying the geometry of the drive
train.

g.i
 The tailstock can be used to support the end of the workpiece with a center, or to hold

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tools for drilling, reaming, threading, or cutting tapers. It can be adjusted in position
along the ways to accommodate different length workpieces. The tailstock barrel can
be fed along the axis of rotation with the tailstock hand wheel.


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The carriage controls and supports the cutting tool. It consists of:
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 A saddle that slides along the ways;

 An apron that controls the feed mechanisms;

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 A cross slide that controls transverse motion of the tool (toward or away from the
operator);
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 A tool compound that adjusts to permit angular tool movement; v a tool post that
holds the cutting tools.
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 There are a number of different lathe designs, and some of the most popular are
discussed here.
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 Centre lathe
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 The basic, simplest and most versatile lathe.

 This machine tool is manually operated that is why it requires skilled operators.
Suitable for low and medium production and for repair works.

 There are two tool feed mechanism in the engine lathes. These cause the cutting tool
to move when engaged.

 The lead screw will cause the apron and cutting tool to advance quickly. This is used
for cutting threads, and for moving the tool quickly.

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 The feed rod will move the apron and cutting tool slowly forward. This is largely
used for most of the turning operations.

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2. Explain the following methods of taper turning in a lathe?

Taper turning

 A taper is a conical shape. Tapers can be cut with lathes quite easily. There are some
common methods for turning tapers on an center lathe,

 Using a form tool: This type of tool is specifically designed for one cut, at a certain
taper angle. The tool is plunged at one location, and never moved along the lathe
slides. v Compound Slide

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 Method: The compound slide is set to travel at half of the taper angle. The tool is then fed

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 across the work by hand, cutting the taper as it goes. v Off-Set Tail Stock: In this method
the
 normal rotating part of the lathe still drives the workpiece (mounted between centres),

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but the centre at the tailstock is offset towards/away from the cutting tool. Then, as
the cutting tool passes over, the part is cut in a conical shape. This method is limited
to small tapers over long lengths.The tailstock offset h is defined by


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h = Lsinα, where L is the length of work piece, and α is the half of the taper angle.
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3. Explain Special Attachments?
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 Unless a workpiece has a taper machined onto it which perfectly matches the internal
taper in the spindle, or has threads which perfectly match the external threads on the
spindle (two conditions which rarely exist), an accessory must be used to mount a
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workpiece to the spindle.

 A workpiece may be bolted or screwed to a faceplate, a large, flat disk that mounts to
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the spindle. In the alternative, faceplate dogs may be used to secure the work to the
faceplate.
w.

 A workpiece may be mounted on a mandrel, or circular work clamped in a three- or

four-jaw chuck. For irregular shaped workpieces it is usual to use a four jaw
(independent moving jaws) chuck. These holding devices mount directly to the Lathe
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headstock spindle.

 In precision work, and in some classes of repetition work, cylindrical workpieces are
usually held in a collet inserted into the spindle and secured either by a draw-bar, or
by a collet closing cap on the spindle. Suitable collets may also be used to mount
square or hexagonal workpieces. In precision tool making work such collets are
usually of the draw-in variety, where, as the collet is tightened, the workpiece moves
slightly back into the headstock,

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4.Explain the Working principle of capstan and turret lathes?

Capstan Lathe

 The term "capstan lathe" overlaps in sense with the term "turret lathe" to a large
extent. In many times and places, it has been understood to be synonymous with
"turret lathe". In other times and places it has been held in technical contradistinction
to "turret lathe", with the difference being in whether the turret's slide is fixed to the
bed (ram-type turret) or slides on the bed's ways (saddle-type turret). The difference
in terminology is mostly a matter of United Kingdom and Common wealth usage
versus United States usage. American usage tends to call them all "turret lathes".

The word "capstan" could logically seem to refer to the turret itself, and to have been

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
inspired by the nautical capstan. A lathe turret with tools mounted in it can very much

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resemble a nautical capstan full of handspikes. This interpretation would lead
Americans to

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 treat "capstan" as a synonym of "turret" and "capstan lathe" as a synonym of "turret
lathe". However, the multi-spoked handles that the operator uses to advance the slide
are also called capstans, and they themselves also resemble the nautical capstan.

Turret Lathe

 The words "turret" and "tower", the former being a diminutive of the latter, come
ultimately from the Latin "turris", which means "tower", and the use of "turret" both
to refer to lathe turrets and to refer to gun turrets seems certainly to have been
inspired by its earlier connection to the turrets of fortified buildings and to siege
towers. The history of the rook in chess is connected to the same history, with the

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French word for rook, tour, meaning "tower".

 It is an interesting coincidence that the word "tour" in French can mean both "lathe"

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and "tower", with the first sense coming ultimately from Latin "tornus", "lathe", and
the second sense coming ultimately from Latin "turris", "tower". "Tour revolver",
"tour tourelle", and "tour tourelle revolver" are various ways to say "turret lathe" in

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French.

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5.Explain Machining time?

Machining time is the time when a machine is actually processing something. Generally,
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machining time is the term used when there is a reduction in material or removing some
undesirable parts of a material. For example, in a drill press, machining time is when the
cutting edge is actually moving forward and making a hole. Machine time is used in other
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situations, such as when a machine installs screws in a case automatically.

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One of the important aspects in manufacturing calculation is how to find and calculate the
machining time in a machining operation. Generally, machining is family of processes or
operations in which excess material is removed from a starting work piece by a sharp cutting
w.

tool so the remaining part has the desired geometry and the required shape. The most

common machining operations can be classified into four types: turning, milling, drilling and
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lathe work.

Calculate Time for Turning

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UNIT – 3

RECIPROCATING MACHINE TOOLS

1. Compare hydraulic shaper with mechanical shaper?

SL.NO Hydrulic shaper Mechanical shaper

1. smooth cutting operation Rough and noisy cutting operation

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2. changing of cutting speed is easy changing of cutting speed is difficult

3. Higher cutting to return ratio can be Lower cutting to return ratio

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obtained

4.
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Stroke length can be easily adjusted Change of stroke length is not possible
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without stopping the machine
with out stopping the machine.
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2. Write down any four operations performed by a shaper?

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Machining horizontal surfaces.

Machining vertical surfaces.

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Machining inclined surfaces.

Machining irregular surfaces.

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3. Mention the operation performed by planer?

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The following operations generally performed in a planer are

a.Planning horizontal surface b.Planning vertical surface

c.Planning curved surface d.Planning of an angle

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4. What is the function of clapper block in a planer?

During cutting stroke, the tool block fits inside the clapper block rigidly.

During the return stroke, the tool block lifts out of the clapper block to avoid

rubbing of the tool on the job.

5. State the difference between a vertical shaper and a slotter?

vertical shaper slotter

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1. vertical shapers generally fitted 1.The slides are fitted

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with rotary table to machine

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curved surfaces
2.slides will move to perform
2. Rotary table along with tools will

remove. e slotting.
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3. vertical shaper is not fixed in the 3. slotter is fixed in the vertical
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vertical plane plane.

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6. What are the common work holding devices used on milling

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machines? a.„v‟ blocks.

b.machine vises.
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c .milling fixtures.
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d.Dividing heads

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7. What is a shell mill?

A shell mill is a large type of face or end mill that mounts onto an arbor,

rather than having an integral shank. Typicaly, there is a hollow or recess in

the center of the shell for mounting hardware onto a separate arbor.

8. What is meant by up-milling and down milling?

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In up milling, cutters rotates opposites to the direction of a feed of the work

piece whereas in down milling, the cutter rotates in the same direction of

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travel of the workpiece.

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9. What are the differences between up milling and down milling?

SL.NO EVENT OF UP MILLING DOWN MILLING

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OPERATION

1. Direction of Cutter rotates against the Cutter rotates in the

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Travel direction of travel of same direction of

workpiece. travel of workpiece

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Minimum at the
Chip
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2. Maximum at the
thickness beginning of cut beginnining Greeches
Greeches max when the min at terminates
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cut terminates.
3.
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Decreases from max

cutting force
Increases from zero to to zero per tooth.

max per tooth

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10. What is thread milling?

A thread milling has no chamfer. The mill is inserted into the hole along the

axis of the spindle, deep enough to produce full thread depth required

11. write down the rule for gear ratio in differential indexing

Rule for gear ratio in differential

indexing: Gear ratio = (A-N)/A

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A- Selected no which can be indexed by plain indexing and

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approximately equal to N.

N- Required no. of divisions to be indexed.

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12. How do specify radial drilling machine?

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A drilling machine is specified by the job following items.
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1. Maximum size of the drill in mm that the machine can be operates.

2. Table size of maximum dimension of a job can mount on a table in

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square meter.

3. maximum spindle speed and range of spindle speeds in r.p.m

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13. Write down any four operations that can be performed in a drilling machine?

1. Drilling
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2. counter sinking
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3. Tapping

4. Reaming.
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14. What is meant by “sensitive hand feed”?

In drilling machines, manual sensing of the hand does feeding of the tools

towards the work piece. it is called as sensitive hand feed

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15. What is broaching?

Broaching is a process of machining a surface with a special multipoint cutting

tool called “broach” which has successively higher cutting edges in a fixed

path.

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16. Why is sawing a commonly used process?

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1. Easy handling of machines and spindle construction

2. Fast operation and cost of machinery is less

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UNIT III

RECIPROCATING MACHINE TOOLS

PART - B
1. With a simple sketch, explain the working of the crank and slotted link quick

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return motion mechanism used in shaper?

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ee
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En
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w.

 Shaping is performed on a machine tool called a shaper. The major components of a

shaper are the ram, which has the tool post with cutting tool mounted on its face, and
a worktable, which holds the part and accomplishes the feed motion.
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 A shaper is a type of machine tool that uses linear relative motion between the
workpiece and a single-point cutting tool tomachine a linear toolpath. Its cut is
analogous to that of a lathe, except that it is (archetypally) linear instead of helical.
(Adding axes of motion can yield helical toolpaths, as also done in helical planing.)
A shaper is analogous to a planer, but smaller, and with the cutter riding a ram that
moves above a stationary workpiece, rather than the entire workpiece moving
beneath the cutter. The ram is moved back and forth typically by a crank inside the
column; hydraulically actuated shapers also exist.

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2. Explain the counter boring and counter ringing operation.

Explain the Working principle of a Jig boring machine with a neat sketch?

 Boring is a process of producing circular internal profiles on a hole made by drilling

or another process. It uses single point cutting tool called a boring bar. In boring, the
boring bar can be rotated, or the workpart can be rotated. Machine tools which rotate
the boring bar against a stationary workpiece are called boring machines (also boring

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mills). Boring can be accomplished on a turning machine with a stationary boring bar
positioned in the tool post and rotating workpiece held in the lathe chuck as
illustrated in the figure. In this section, we will consider only boring on boring

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machines.
 Boring machines can be horizontal or vertical according to the orientation of the axis
of rotation of the machine spindle. In horizontal boring operation, boring bar is

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mounted in a tool slide, which position is adjusted relative to the spindle face plate to
machine different diameters. The boring bar must be supported on the other end
when boring long and small-diameter holes. A vertical boring mill is used for large,
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heavy work parts with diameters up to 12 m. The typical boring mill can position and
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feed several cutting tools simultaneously. The work part is mounted on a rotating
worktable.
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Cutting tool for boring

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 The typical boring bar is shown in the figure. When boring with a rotating tool, size
is controlled by changing the radial position of the tool slide, which holds the boring
bar, with respect to the spindle axis of rotation. For finishing machining, the boring
bar is additionally mounted in an adjustable boring head for more precise control of
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the bar radial position.

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3.Explain Milling?

 Milling is a process of producing flat and complex shapes with the use of multi-tooth
cutting tool, which is called a milling cutter and the cutting edges are called teeth.
The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is perpendicular to the direction of feed, either
parallel or perpendicular to the machined surface. The machine tool that traditionally
performs this operation is a milling machine. Milling is an interrupted cutting
operation: the teeth of the milling cutter enter and exit the work during each

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revolution. This interrupted cutting action subjects the teeth to a cycle of impact force
and thermal shock on every rotation. The tool material and cutter geometry must be
designed to withstand these conditions. Cutting fluids are essential for most milling
operations. Three types of feed in milling can be identified:

 Feed per tooth: the basic parameter in milling equivalent to the feed in turning.
 Feed per tooth is selected with regard to the surface finish and dim ensional accuracy
required. Feeds per tooth are i n the range of 0.05~0.5 mm/tooth, lower feeds are for
finishing

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 cuts; feed per revolution: it determines the amount of material cut per on e full revolution
of the milling cutter. Feed per revolution is calculated as fr = fz being the nu mber of the
cutter’s

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 teeth;

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 Feed per minute fm: Feed per minute is calculated taking into account the
rotational speed N and number of the cutter’s teeth z, fm = fzN = frN

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Feed per minute is used to adjust the feed change gears.
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 Three types of feed in milling can be identified:
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 Feed per tooth fz: the basic pa rameter in milling equivalent to the feed in t urning.

 Feed per tooth is selected wit h regard to the surface finish and dimensiona l accuracy
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required (see Section 5.10 Selection of Cutting Conditions). Feeds per tooth ar e in
the range of 0.05~0.5 mm/tooth, lower feeds are for finishing cuts; feed per revoluti
on fr: it determines the amount of material cut pe r one full revolution of the milling
cutter. Fee d per revolution is calculated as
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 fr = fz ,z being the number of the cutter’s teeth;

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 Feed per minute fm: Feed per minute is calculated taking into account the rotational
speed N and number of the cutter’s tee th z, fm = fzN = fr,NFeed per minute is use d to
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adjust the feed

 change gears. In down millin g, the cutting force is directed into the work table,
which allows thinner workparts tobe machined. Better surface finish is obtained but
the stress load on the teeth is abrupt, which may da mage the cutter.In up milling, the
cutting fo rce tend to lift the workpiece. The work conditi ons for the cutter are more
favourable. Because the cutter does not start to cut when it makes contact (cutting at
zero cut is impossible), the surface has a natural waviness.

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Milling Operations

Owing to the variety of shapes possible and its high production rates, m illing is one of the
most versatile and widely used machining operations. The geometric form created by milling
fall into three major groups: P lane surfaces: the surface is linear in all thre e dimensions.
The simplest and most convenient type of surface;

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Two-dimensional surfaces: th e shape of the surface changes in the direc tion of two of the axes

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and is linear along the third axis.

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4.Expliain Planner?
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 PLANER is a very large reciprocating machine tool.

 The work is mounted on the table by any one of the work holding devices.
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 Two vertical columns with vertical guide ways are provided on both sides of the bed and
connected by a cross-rail to mount the tool heads and also connected by a cross beam at the
top.
 These tool heads are used to hold the tools.
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 The tool cuts the workpiece when the table reciprocates.

 The cross feed is given by moving the tool head along the cross-rail.
 Vertical feed is given by moving down the tool.
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 The tool slide can be tilted or swivelled at any required angle using a swivel head for machining
inclined surfaces.
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The various types of planer are as follows.

1. Double housing planer

2. Open side planer
3. Pit planer
4. Edge planer
5. Divided table planer

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5.Explain Specification of Planer?

 The distance between two columns

 Stroke length of the planer
 Radial distance between the top of the table and the bottom most position of the cross rail
 Maximum length of the table
 Power of the motor
 Range of the speeds and feed available
 Type of drives required

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6.Explain the twist drill nomenclature and define various elements of twist drill?

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DRILLING is the process of producing hole in the work piece by using a rotating cutter called drill.

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 The machine on which the drilling is carried out is called drilling machines.
 The drilling machine sometimes called drill press as the machine exerts vertical pressure to
originate a hole.
Specification of Drilling Machine
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 Maximum size of the drill in mm that the machine can operate.

 Table size of maximum dimensions of a job can mount on a table in square metre.
 Maximum spindle travel in mm.
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 Number of spindle speeds and range of spindle speeds in RPM.

 Number of automatic spindle feeds or feed range available in mm/rev.
 Morse taper number of the drill spindle nose.
 Power input of the machine HP.
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 Floor space required in m2.

.
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Drill nomenclature

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ng
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7.With a simple sketch, explain the working of a vertical broching machine?
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Process of machining a surface with a special multipoint cutting tool called BROACH which has
successively higher cutting edges in a fixed path
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Vertical broaching machine

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UNIT – 3

RECIPROCATING MACHINE TOOLS

1. What are the types of surfaces that could de produced using plain

cylindrical grinders?

Plain cylindrical parts, cylindrical parts, cylinders, tapers, shoulders,

fillets, cams, crankshaft etc.

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2. State the abrasives sed in manufacture of grinding wheels?

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a, corundum (75 to 90% crystalline Al2O3 +IRON

OXIDE) b, Diamond

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Artificial abrasives:

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a, Aluminium oxide

b, silicon oxide
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3. What do you mean by loading of grinding whells?

During the operation , the chips formed get entrapped in the linner
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granular space of abrasive particles. This is called loading.

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The surface of the wheel becomes smooth and gets a glassy

appearance. This is known as glazing wheel.

4. What is meant by dressing and truing?

Dressing is the process of loading and breaking away the glazed

surface so that new sharp abrasive particles are again present to work

for efficient cutting.

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Truing is the process of trimming the cutting surface of the wheel to

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true with the axis.

5. Mention four important factors that influence the selection of

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grinding wheel?

1. constant factors
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i. physical properties of material to be ground

ii. Amount and rate of stock to be removed.

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iii. Area of contact.

iv. Type of grinding machine

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2. variable Factors

i.work speed.
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ii. wheel speed.

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iii. condition of the grinding machine

iv. personal factor

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6. What for lapping is used?

a, Removing small amounts of material from the surfaces of tools.

b, Removing small defects and surface cracks left during previous

operations

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c, Eliminating small distortion.

7. What is meant by honing?

An abrading process of finishing previously machined surfaces is known as

honing.

8. What are the advantages of honing process?

1. Simple process which can be done on any general purpose

machines such as lathes and drilling machines.

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2. This process can be applied for both internal cylindrical and flat

surfaces.

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3. Honing enables the maximum stock removing capacity out of entire

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surface finishing operations.

9. What is meant by dressing and truing?

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Dressing is the process of loading and breaking away the glazed
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surface so that new sharp abrasive particles are again present to work

for efficient cutting.

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Truing is the process of trimming the cutting surface of the wheel to run
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true with the axis.

10. What is roller burnishing process?

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Roller burnishing is a method of cold working metal surfaces in which

hardened sphere or cylindrical roller is pressed against the work to be

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processed. For example, in roller burnishing on a lathe, the burnishing

tool is moved across the surface to be spanned.

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UNIT III

RECIPROCATING MACHINE TOOLS

PART - B

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1. What are the various methods of centerless grinding and each briefly?

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ee
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 Centerless grinding is a form of grinding where there is no collet or pair of centers

holding the object in place. Instead, th ere is a regulating wheel positioned on the o
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pposite side of the object to the grinding wheel. A work rest keeps the object at the
appropriate height but has no bearing on its rotary speed. The workblade is angled
slightly towa rds the regulating wheel, with the workpiece c enterline above the
centerlines of the regul ating and grinding wheel; this means that high spots do not
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tend to generate corresponding o pposite low spots, and hence the roundness of
parts can be improved. Centerless grinding is much easier to combine with
automatic load ing procedures than centered grinding; thr oughfeed grinding, where
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the regulating wheel is held at a slight angle to the part so that ther e is a force
feeding the part through the grinder, is particularly efficient.
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2. Explain the external cylindrical grinding process and surface grinding process?

The cylindrical grinder is a type of grinding machine used to shape the outside of an object.
The cylindrical grinder can work on a variety of shapes; however the object must have a

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central axis of rotation. This includes but is not limited to such shapes as a cylinder, an
ellipse, a cam, or a crankshaft.
Cylindrical grinding is define d as having four essential actions:

1. The work (object) musst be constantly rotating

2. The grinding wheel m ust be constantly rotating

.in
3. The grinding wheel is fed towards and away from the work

4. Either the work or the grinding wheel is traversed with respect to th e other.

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While the majority of cylindri cal grinders employ all four movements, there are grinders that
only employ three of the four actions.

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3.Explain the gear cutting by a formed tool?

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4.Explain the operations of horizontal broaching machine with neat sketch?

 Broaching machines are relatively simple as they only have to move the broach in a
linear motion at a predetermined speed and provide a means for handling the broach
automatically. Most machines are hydraulic, but a few specialty machines are
mechanically driven. The machines are distinguished by whether their motion is
horizontal or vertical. The choice of machine is primarily dictated by the stroke
required. Vertical broaching machines rarely have a stroke longer than 60 in (1.5 m).
 Vertical broaching machines can be designed for push broaching, pull-down
broaching, pull-up broaching, or surface broaching. Push broaching machines are

.in
similar to an arbor press with a guided ram; typical capacities are 5 to 50 tons. The
two ram pull-down machine is the most common type of broaching machine. This
style machine has the rams under the table. Pull-up machines have the ram above the

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table; they usually have more than one ram. Most surface broaching is done on a
vertical machine.


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 Horizontal broaching machines are designed for pull broaching, surface broaching,
continuous broaching, and rotary broaching. Pull style machines are basically vertical
machines laid on the side with a longer stroke. Surface style machines hold the
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broach stationary while the workpieces are clamped into fixtures that are mounted on
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a conveyor system. Continuous style machines are similar to the surface style
machines except adapted for internal broaching.


 Horizontal machines used to be much more common than vertical machines, however
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today they represent just 10% of all broaching machines purchased. Vertical
machines are more popular because they take up less space.
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5.Explain Abrasive Processes?

Abrasive machining processes can be divided into two categories based on how the
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
grains are applied to the workpiece.
w.

 In bonded abrasive processes, the particles are held together within a matrix, and
their combined shape determines the geometry of the finished workpiece. For
example, in grinding the particles are bonded together in a wheel. As the grinding
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wheel is fed into the part, its shape is transferred onto the workpiece.

 In loose abrasive processes, there is no structure connecting the grains. They may be
applied without lubrication as dry powder, or they may be mixed with a lubricant to
form a slurry. Since the grains can move independently, they must be forced into the
workpiece with another object like a polishing cloth or a lapping plate.

 Common abrasive processes are listed below.

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 Fixed (bonded) abrasive processes

 Grinding

 Honing, superfinishing

 Tape finishing, abrasive belt machining

 Buffing, brushing

.in
 Abrasive sawing, Diamond wire cutting, Wire saw

 Sanding

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Loose abrasive processes

 Polishing
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 Lapping

 Abrasive flow machining (AFM)

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 Hydro-erosive grinding

 Water-jet cutting
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 Abrasive blasting

 Mass finishing,
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6.Differentiate between gear forming and generating?

w.

 In this type, the cutting edges are formed to the shape of the gear tooth space.
 The formed end mill cutter is held on the spindle of a vertical milling machine.
 The blank is held in a dividing head and fed against the rotating cutter. The axis of both
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the cutter and gear blank is perpendicular are inclined to each other.
 Gear generation is based on the fact that any two involute gears of the same module will mesh
together.
 Here, one of the meshing gear is made as the cutter. The other gear rotates and reciprocates
along the width.

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7. Explain neet sketch surface grinding machine?

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UNIT –4 & 5
CNC MACHINING & PROGRAMMING OF CNC
MACHINE TOOLS

1. Define NC?

Controlling a machine tool by means of a prepared program is

known as numerical control or NC.

2. what are the classifications of NC machines?

1.point to point NC system

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2. straight cut NC system

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3.Contouring NC system

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3. What are G-codes and M-codes? Give examples.

G-codes are preparatory function codes which prepare the machine

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are for different modes of movement like positioning, contouring,
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thread cutting etc.

Eg. G00 – Point to point positioning

G01 – linear interpolation

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M- codes are miscellaneous function codes which denote the

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auxillary or switching information such as coolant on/off, spindle

speed etc.
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Eg. M00 – Program stop

M01 – Optional stop.

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4. What is the role of computer for NC machine tool?

computer numerical control is an NC system that utilizes stored

program to perform basic numerical control functions. mini or micro

computer based controller unit is used.

5. Name the various elements of CNC machines?

1.Tape reader

2.Mini computer

.in
3. servos and interface logic

4. Motion feedback

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6. What is the role of computer for NC machine tool?

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Computer numerical control is an NC system that utilizes stored program to

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perform basic numerical control functions. mini or micro computer based
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controller unit is used.

7. What is point –to- point (PTP) system?

En

It is also called positioning system. The objectives of the machine tool

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control are to move the cutting tool to a predefined location. The speed or

path is not important in this system

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8. Mention the main difference between CNC and DNC?

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CNC system can do operations on only one machine at a time. But direct

numerical control involves that at a time a large central computer to direct the
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operations of a number of separate NC machines

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9. List the commonly used co – ordinate system of CNC machine tools?

Cantilever construction

Bridge construction

Column construction

Gantry construction

.in
10. What is the difference between incremental and absolute system?

ng
In absolute programming, the distance at my point at any instant will

be measured from the origin ( X=0, Y=0).

eri
Whereas in incremental programming, the instant point will be noted

as (X=0,Y=0). Further measurement will be made from the particular

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point only.

11. Write down the types of statements in APT language.?

En

1. Geometric statements

2. Motion statements
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3. postprocessor statement

4. special control or Auxiliary statements

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12. Define subroutine?

If the same machining operations, which was carried out already, is

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to be performed at many different positions on the work piece, it

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can be executed by means of a program called as subroutines

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UNIT V

CNC MACHINES

PART - B

1.Explain Numerical Control (NC) Machine Tools?

.in
 Numerical Control (NC) refers to the method of controlling the manufacturing

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operation by means of directly inserted coded numerical instructions into the
machine tool. It is important to realize that NC is not a machining method, rather, it
is a concept of machine control. Although the most popular applications of NC are in

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machining, NC can be applied to many other operations, including welding, sheet
metalworking, riveting, etc.

 e
The major advantages of NC over conventional methods of machine control are as
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follows:

 Higher precision
En

 Machining of complex three-dimensional shapes

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 Better quality

 Higher productivity
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 Multi-operational machining
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 Low operator qualification

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Types of NC systems

Machine controls are divided into three groups,

Traditional numerical control (NC);

Computer numerical control (CNC);

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Distributed numerical control (DNC).

The original numerical control machines were referred to as NC machine tool. They have
“hardwired” control, whereby control is accomplished through the use of punched paper
(or

plastic) tapes or cards. Tapes tend to wear, and become dirty, thus causing misreadings.
Many other problems arise from the use of NC tapes, for example the need to manual reload

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the NC tapes for each new part and the lack of program editing abilities, which increases the
lead time. The end of NC tapes was the result of two competing developments, CNC and
DNC.

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CNC refers to a system that has a local computer to store all required numerical data. While

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CNC was used to enhance tapes for a while, they eventually allowed the use of other storage
media, magnetic tapes and hard disks. The advantages of CNC systems include but are not
limited to the possibility to store and execute a number of large programs (especially if a
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three or more dimensional machining of complex shapes is considered), to allow editing of
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programs, to execute cycles of machining commands, etc.

2.Explain Electric discharge machining?

En

 Electric discharge machining (EDM), sometimes colloquially also referred to as

spark machining, spark eroding, burning, die sinking, or wire erosion, is a
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manufacturing process in which a desired shape is obtained using electrical

discharges (sparks). Material is removed from the workpiece by a series of rapidly
recurring current discharges between two electrodes, separated by a dielectric fluid
and subject to an electric voltage. One of the electrodes is called the tool-electrode, or
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simply the "tool" or "electrode," while the other is called the workpiece-electrode, or
"workpiece."
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 When the distance between the two electrodes is reduced, the intensity of the electric
field in the space between the electrodes becomes greater than the strength of the
dielectric (at least in some point(s)), which breaks, allowing current to flow between
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the two electrodes. This phenomenon is the same as the breakdown of a capacitor. As
a result, material is removed from both the electrodes. Once the current flow stops (or
it is stopped – depending on the type of generator), new liquid dielectric is usually
conveyed into the inter-electrode volume enabling the solid particles (debris) to be
carried away and the insulating proprieties of the dielectric to be restored. Adding
new liquid dielectric in the inter-electrode volume is commonly referred to as
flushing. Also, after a current flow, a difference of potential between the two
electrodes is restored to what it was before the breakdown, so that a new liquid
dielectric breakdown can occur.

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Wire EDM

Also known as wire cutting EDM, wire burning EDM, or traveling wire EDM, this process
uses spark erosion to machine or remove material with a traveling wire electrode from any
electrically conductive material. The wire electrode usually consists of brass or zinc-coated
brass material.

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3.Programming Fundamentals CNC?

Fanuc G-Code List (Lathe)

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G code Description

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G00 Rapid traverse
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G01 Linear interpolation
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G02 Circular interpolation CW

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G03 Circular interpolation CCW

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G04 Dwell
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G09 Exact stop

G10 Programmable data input

G20 Input in inch

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G21 Input in mm

G22 Stored stroke check function on

G23 Stored stroke check function off

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G27 Reference position return check

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G28 Return to reference position

G32 Thread cutting

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G40 Tool nose radius compensation cancel
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G41 Tool nose radius compensation left

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G42 Tool nose radius compensation right

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G70 Finish machining cycle

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G71 Turning cycle

G72 Facing cycle

G73 Pattern repeating cycle

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G74 Peck drilling cycle

G75 Grooving cycle

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G76 Threading cycle

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G92 Coordinate system setting or max. spindle speed setting

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G94 Feed Per Minute

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G95 Feed Per Revolution
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G96 Constant surface speed control

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G97 Constant surface speed control cancel

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4.Explain Fanuc G-Code List (Mill)?

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G00 Rapid traverse

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G01 Linear interpolation

G02 Circular interpolation CW

G03 Circular interpolation CCW

G04 Dwell

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G17 X Y plane selection

G18 Z X plane selection

G19 Y Z plane selection

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G28 Return to reference position

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G30 2nd, 3rd and 4th reference position return

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G40 Cutter compensation cancel

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G41 Cutter compensation left
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G42 Cutter compensation right

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G43 Tool length compensation + direction

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G44 Tool length compensation – direction

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G49 Tool length compensation cancel

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G53 Machine coordinate system selection

G54 Workpiece coordinate system 1 selection

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G55 Workpiece coordinate system 2 selection

G56 Workpiece coordinate system 3 selection

G57 Workpiece coordinate system 4 selection

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G58 Workpiece coordinate system 5 selection

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G59 Workpiece coordinate system 6 selection

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G68 Coordinate rotation
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G69 Coordinate rotation cancel

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G73 Peck drilling cycle

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G74 Left-spiral cutting circle

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G76 Fine boring cycle

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G80 Canned cycle cancel

G81 Drilling cycle, spot boring cycle

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G82 Drilling cycle or counter boring cycle

G83 Peck drilling cycle

G84 Tapping cycle

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G85 Boring cycle

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G86 Boring cycle

G87 Back boring cycle

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G88 Boring cycle
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G89 Boring cycle

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G90 Absolute command

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G91 Increment command

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G92 Setting for work coordinate system or clamp at maximum spindle speed

G98 Return to initial point in canned cycle

G99 Return to R point in canned cycle

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5.Explain Manual Part Programming?

Lathe

G02 G03 G Code Circular Interpolation

G02 G Code Clock wise Circular Interpolation.

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G03 G Code Counter Clock wise Circular Interpolation.

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There are multiple articles/cnc program examples about G code circular interpolation, here
is the list of few articles so that cnc machinists can easily navigate through different cnc

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programming articles.

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G02 G03 G Code Example CNC Programs (G code Arc Examples)
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o CNC Circular Interpolation Tutorial G02
G03 o Fanuc CNC Lathe Programming
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Example
o CNC Programming Example G Code G02 Circular Interpolation
Clockwise o Fanuc G20 Measuring in Inches with CNC Program Example
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o CNC Arc Programming Exercise

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o CNC Programming for Beginners a CNC Programming

Example o CNC Lathe Programming Example
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Here is a new CNC programming examples which shows the use of G02 G03 G code
circular interpolation.
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G02 G03 G Code Example Program

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N20 G50 S2000 T0300
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G96 S200 M03
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G42 G00 X35.0 Z5.0 T0303 M08

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G01 Z-20.0 F0.2

G02 X67.0 Z-36.0 R16.0

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G01 X68.0 :
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G03 X100.0 Z-52.0 R16.0

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G01 Z-82.0

G40 G00 X200.0 Z200.0 M09 T0300

M30

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G Code G02 G03 I & K Example Program

G02 G03 G Code Circular Interpolation can be programmed in two ways,

G02 X... Z... R...

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G02 X... Z... I... K...

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The below is the same cnc program but this version uses I & K with G02 G03 G code.

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N20 G50 S2000 T0300

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G96 S200 M03

G42 G00 X35.0 Z5.0 T0303 M08

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G01 Z-20.0 F0.2

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G02 X67.0 Z-36.0 I16.0 K0

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G01 X68.0 :

G03 X100.0 Z-52.0 I0 K-16.0

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G01 Z-82.0
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G40 G00 X200.0 Z200.0 M09 T0300

M30

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6.Explain Micromachining?

 Superfinishing, a metalworking process for producing very fine surface finishes

 Various micro electro mechanical systems

 Bulk micromachining

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 Surface micromachining

 High-aspect-ratio microstructure technologies

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 Bulk micromachining is a process used to produce micro machinery or micro electro
mechanical systems (MEMS).

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 Unlike surface micromachining, which uses a succession of thin film deposition and
selective etching, bulk micromachining defines structures by selectively etching
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inside a substrate. Whereas surface micromachining creates structures on top of a
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substrate, bulk micromachining produces structures inside a substrate.

 Usually, silicon wafers are used as substrates for bulk micromachining, as they can
be anisotropically wet etched, forming highly regular structures. Wet etching
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typically

 uses alkaline liquid solvents, such as potassium hydroxide (KOH) or

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tetramethylammonium hydroxide (TMAH) to dissolve silicon which has been left

exposed by the photolithography masking step. These alkali solvents dissolve the
silicon in a highly anisotropic way, with some crystallographic orientations
dissolving up to 1000 times faster than others. Such an approach is often used with
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very specific crystallographic orientations in the raw silicon to produce V-shaped

grooves. The surface of these grooves can be atomically smooth if the etch is carried
out correctly, and the dimensions and angles can be precisely defined.
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 Bulk micromachining starts with a silicon wafer or other substrates which is

selectively etched, using photolithography to transfer a pattern from a mask to the
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surface. Like surface micromachining, bulk micromachining can be performed with

wet or dry etches, although the most common etch in silicon is the anisotropic wet
etch. This etch takes advantage of the fact that silicon has a crystal structure, which
means its atoms are all arranged periodically in lines and planes. Certain planes have
weaker bonds and are more susceptible to etching. The etch results in pits that have
angled walls, with the angle being a function of the crystal orientation of the
substrate. This type of etching is inexpensive and is generally used in early, low-
budget research.

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 Unlike Bulk micromachining, where a silicon substrate (wafer) is selectively etched

to produce structures, surface micromachining builds microstructures by deposition
and etching of different structural layers on top of the substrate. Generally
polysilicon is commonly used as one of the layers and silicon dioxide is used as a
sacrificial layer which is removed or etched out to create the necessary void in the
thickness direction. Added layers are generally very thin with their size varying from
2-5 Micro metres. The main advantage of this machining process is the possibility of
realizing monolithic microsystems in which the electronic and the mechanical

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components(functions) are built in on the same substrate. The surface micromachined
components are smaller compared to their counterparts, the bulk micromachined
ones.

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7.Explain Water Machining?

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A water jet cutter, also known as a waterjet or waterjet, is an industrial tool capable of
cutting a wide variety of materials using a very high-pressure jet of water, or a mixture of

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water and an abrasive substance. The term abrasive jet refers specifically to the use of a
mixture of water and abrasive to cut hard materials such as metal or granite, while the terms
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pure waterjet and water-only cutting refer to waterjet cutting without the use of added
abrasives, often used for softer materials such as wood or rubber. Waterjet cutting is often
used during fabrication of machine parts. It is the preferred method when the materials being
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cut are sensitive to the high temperatures generated by other methods. Waterjet cutting is
used in various industries, including mining andaerospace, for cutting, shaping, and reaming.
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