MIND

Chemical Reactions and Equations

Chemical Change or Chemical Reaction Physical Change

These are the changes because of the alteration in chemical These are the changes in which physical
composition of the substance. These are irreversible in nature properties of a substance like state, colour etc.,
(in most of the case). are altered but its chemical composition remains
the same. These changes are reversible in nature.

Chemical Equation 1. Combination Reactions

It is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction, in which In these reactions, two or more reactants react together to give a
the reactants symbol/formula are written on the left and products single product.
symbol/ formula are written on the right. These two are separated
by an arrow.

2. Decomposition Reactions
Balanced Chemical Equations
In these reactions, a single reactant breaks down into two or more
The reactions in which the total number of atoms of each element simpler products.
are equal on both sides of the equation are called balanced ● Thermal Decomposition In these reactions, heat is used to
chemical equations. decompose the substance.
● Electrolysis In these reactions, electricity is used to
decompose the substance.
Steps involved in Balancing Chemical ● Photolysis In these reactions, the substance is decomposed
Equation by Hit and Trial Method
by using light energy.
Step I Write unbalanced equation and enclose the formulae in brackets.
Step II Make list of elements present in unbalanced or skeletal equation.
Step III Balance, first, second and successive elements.
Step IV Check the correctness of equation. 3. Displacement Reactions
Step V Make the equation more informatory. In these reactions, one element displaces the other from its salt
solution.
● Single Displacement Reactions In these reactions, a more
reactive element displaces the less reactive one from its salt
5. Oxidation and Reduction Reactions solution.
● Double Displacement Reactions In these reactions, two
Process which involves addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen or
loss of electron is called oxidation. Reduction is the reverse of it, i.e. it different ions in the reactant molecules are displaced by each
involves removal of oxygen or addition of hydrogen or gain of other.
electron.
Redox Reactions In these reactions, oxidation and reduction process
occur simultaneously.
Oxidising Agent or Oxidant It is the substance that cause oxidation of 4. Neutralisation Reactions
other substance and itself get reduced. In these reactions, acids and bases react to form salt and water.
Reducing Agent or Reductant It is the substance that cause
reduction of other substance and itself get oxidised.
Effects of Oxidation Reactions
Corrosion It is the process of deterioration of metal surface by the 6. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
action of air, water or chemical. Reactions accompanied by the evolution of heat are called
Rancidity It is the process of slow oxidation of oil and fats present in exothermic (e.g. respiration) whereas the reactions occurring by
the food materials. the absorption of heat are called endothermic reaction (e.g.
photosynthesis).
 MIND
Acids Bases
They are the substances that have sour taste and turn They are the substances that have bitter taste and turn
blue litmus red. red litmus blue.
–
According to Arrhenius, these furnish H+ ions in the According to Arrhenius, these furnish OH ions in
aqueous solution. aqueous solution.
Salts
They are the products of
Strong Acid neutralisation reaction Types
They ionise completely to of Strong Base
between acids and bases. Bases
furnish H+ ion. They ionise almost completely in
e.g. H2SO4, HCl etc. Based on aqueous solution, e.g. NaOH.
ionisation
Common Salt : Sodium Chloride
Weak Acid It is obtained by the reaction of
hydrochloric acid and sodium Weak Base
They ionise only partially
+
to give less H ion. hydroxide. It is used in food and for They ionise only partially in the
e.g. CH3COOH etc. the synthesis of industrially important aqueous solution, e.g. CuO
Types
chemicals like NaOH, H2,Cl2 etc.
of
Dilute Acid Acids
In this acid, the Caustic Soda [Sodium Hydroxide] Alkali
concentration of acid is It is obtained by chlor-alkali process. Water soluble bases are called
low. Electric alkali. Thus, all alkalies are bases
2NaCl(aq)+2H2O(l) but all bases are not alkali, e.g.
current
Based on 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2(g) + H2(g) NaOH.
Concentrated Acid concentration (At anode) (At cathode)
In this acid, the concentra- Properties of Bases
It is used for making soaps, detergents,
tion of acid is high.
artificial textile, fibre paper etc.
1. Reaction with Metals Strong
bases produce hydrogen gas
Properties of Acids when react with active metals.
Bleaching Powder
1. Reaction with Metals It is used for bleaching purpose
2. Reaction with Non-metallic
Hydrogen gas is released Oxides Salt and water are the
and has the formula CaOCl2. products of such reaction.
which burns with 'pop' sound.
e.g. CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3
2. Reaction with Metal Oxides + H2O
In this reaction, salt and water Baking Soda
3. Dilution It is the process of mixing
are produced. It is chemically sodium hydrogen of base with water and is an
3. Reaction with Carbonates carbonate, NaHCO3. It is an important exothermic process.
and Hydrogen Carbonates constituent of baking powder.
Carbon dioxide gas is produced,
which turns lime water milky.
4. Dilution Acids are diluted by Washing Soda
adding acid to water, as the Its chemical formula is Na2CO3.10H2O
reaction is highly exothermic. (hydrated sodium carbonate). It is used Water of Crystallisation
5. Electrical Conductance These for cleansing purposes and to remove Some salts in their dry state also
conduct electricity in aqueous permanent hardness of water. have some fixed number of water
solution because of presence molecules associated with them.
of H+ ion. These are called the water of
Plaster of Paris crystallisation and such salts are
It is chemically calcium sulphate called hydrated salt like washing
hemihydrate, CaSO4. ½ H2O and is obtained soda (Na2CO3.10H2O), blue vitriol
by heating gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) at 373 K. (CuSO4.5H2O) etc.
It is used for plastering of fractured bones.
 MIND
Life Processes : Nutrition
It is a process to transfer source of energy (food) from outside to the body of living organism to
obtain energy for maintaining living structures and performing basic functions of life.

Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic Nutrition

It is performed by green plants and some bacteria, In heterotrophic nutrition, an organism cannot make its own food and
which manufacture their own food from inorganic obtain energy from organic molecules already produced by autotrophs.
sources such as carbon dioxide and water.

Photosynthesis
It is a process by which green plants synthesise Holozoic Saprotrophic Parasitic
organic food in form of carbohydrates in the Complex molecules are They feed on dead organic These organisms live on
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll by taking taken in and then broken matter and breakdown or inside host to obtain
CO2 and H2O. down into simpler form, complex molecules nutrition, e.g. ticks, lice,
e.g. Amoeba, cow, goat, outside the body, leech and flatworm.
dog and humans. e.g. yeast and bacteria.

Site of Photosynthesis
Chloroplasts are the main sites of photosynthesis
that occur in the leaf. They have a green pigment
called chlorophyll that traps solar energy as
Nutrition in Amoeba Nutrition in
photons and is essential pigment for Amoeba is an unicellular omnivore that Human Beings
photosynthesis. does not have special organs for nutrition. The complex substances taken from
It ingests food with pseudopodia. outside are broken down in body by
different parts of alimentary canal.
Raw Materials for Photosynthesis
● CO2 It forms carbohydrates.
● Water It forms oxygen. Human Digestive System
Conditions Necessary for Photosynthesis Digestion is a catabolic process. Human digestive system consists of a long
● Chlorophyll It traps solar energy. tubular structure (7-8 metre) known as alimentary canal where the entire process
● Sunlight It is responsible for photolysis of water. of digestion is accomplished and its associated glands.

Events of Photosynthesis
● Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll. Alimentary Canal Digestive Glands
● Conversion of light energy into chemical It consists of following organs: ● Salivary glands secrete saliva that
energy and spliting of water molecules into ● Mouth It act as first part of contains enzyme salivary amylase.
hydrogen and oxygen. digestive system. Tongue bears Help in digestion of starch.
● Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates. taste buds which help in tasting of ● Gastric glands They are present in
food. Teeth helps in chewing of
food. It leads to buccal cavity that stomach and secrete digestive juice
Mechanism of Digestion containing pepsin, HCl and mucus.
This process involves five steps: opens into pharynx. The latter
continues as oesophagus. ● Liver It secretes bile juice for
● Ingestion Taking in food into mouth.
● Stomach Oesophagus connects emulsification of fats.
● Digestion Conversion of complex food into
pharynx to stomach, that stores ● Pancreas It secretes pancreatic juice
simpler components by the action of various and digest food.
enzymes. that contains trypsin, amylase and
● Intestine It is main organ of lipase enzyme.
● Absorption Digested food is absorbed into blood.
digestion and absorption. ● Intestinal glands They secrete
● Assimilation Distribution of digested food
● Anus End point of alimentary
products to cells of body and its utilisation for intestinal juice.
energy etc. canal from where waste is
removed out from the body.
● Egestion Elimination of undigested food from
anus to outside body.
 It is a process by which food is oxidised to release energy. For this O2
is required from outside of the body. It is a catabolic process of biochemical
oxidation of nutrients such as glucose.

It occurs in the presence of oxygen and It occurs in the absence of oxygen and releases small amount of energy.
releases large amount of energy. The energy
released by respiration is in the form of ATP.
ATP stands for Adenosine Triphosphate also
known as energy currency of cell. Alcoholic Fermentation Lactic Acid Fermentation
It is incomplete breakdown of It is incomplete breakdown of sugar
sugar into ethanol and into lactic acid. It takes place in some
carbon dioxide. It takes place bacteria or in human muscles.
in yeast and bacteria.

Plants get energy through the process of

respiration that is utilised in growth and life
functions. Plant exchange gases through the
following:

In Roots Gaseous exchange takes In Stems Gaseous exchange takes In Leaves Gaseous exchange occurs
place by diffusion from air. place by lenticels in woody plants and through stomata.
stomata in herbaceous plants.

Animals respire through skin or constitute specific organs which make respiratory system of an organism.
These organs have a structure that increases the surface area and is in contact with oxygen rich atmosphere.

Aquatic Organisms Terrestrial Organisms

Rate of breathing is higher in aquatic organisms as level of They use atmospheric oxygen for respiration.
dissolved oxygen in water is less than level of oxygen in air.
Respire through gills.

Mechanism of Gaseous Exchange in Humans Respiration in Human Beings

Humans absorb oxygen from atmosphere through the process of Respiratory system in human beings provides oxygen to body
inhalation. Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occurs between blood and removes carbon dioxide from body. It constitutes of
vessels and alveoli. Carbon dioxide is exhaled from body through lungs to organs like nostrils, nasal passage, pharynx, trachea, larynx,
the atmosphere in a process called exhalation. bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, alveoli, ribs and diaphragm.

Respiratory Pigment
Haemoglobin is the respiratory pigment that
carries oxygen in blood to cells of body.
 MIND
It is a life process of carrying absorbed or made substances from one part
of the body to its other parts.

The transport system of human beings consists of fluid called Plants need a proper transport system to carry water and
blood that is pumped by heart through blood vessels. Blood minerals from root to leaves and stored food from leaves to other
transports nutrients, salts, oxygen, hormones and other parts. There are two transportation pathway, consisting of two
substances around the body. conducting tissues.

Blood
It is a red coloured liquid, its colour is due to the presence of
red pigment called haemoglobin. It supplies O2 and nutrients to Xylem Phloem
living cells. It consist of plasma (55%) and blood corpuscles It transports water and It transports food (like sugar) from
(45%). Blood corpuscles are RBCs, WBCs and platelets. minerals obtained from leaves to other parts of plant and
the soil. this transport is termed as
translocation.
Functions of Blood
Transport of nutrients, excretory products, hormones, oxygen, Transport of Water Transport of Food
carbon dioxide, regulation of pH, body temperature and It occurs due to Products of photosynthesis are
protection from diseases etc. transpiration pull and carried from the leaves to the storage
root pressure. organs of roots, fruits and seeds
growing parts of plant by using
Heart energy from ATP.
It pumps blood. It is a muscular organ having 4 chambers-2
auricles and 2 ventricles. Left auricle and ventricle have pure Transpiration
blood and right auricle and ventricle contains impure blood. It is loss of water in the form of vapour from aerial parts of
plant. It is essential for temperature regulation removing
excess of water, and for transport by xylem.
Blood Vessels
Arteries are tubes which take pure blood from heart to body
tissues and veins are the tubes that transport impure blood from
body tissues to heart.
Capillaries are thin narrow tubes, which connect arteries to Lymph
veins and allow exchange of materials between blood and body It is liquid, similar to plasma but contains less proteins. It
cells. carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains
excess fluid back into blood.

Flow of Blood in Humans

Humans show double circulation. It has two components,
pulmonary and systemic circulation.
The movement of blood from heart to the lungs and back to Blood Pressure
heart constitutes pulmonary circulation. The pressure at which blood is pumped around the body by
The circulation of blood from heart to different parts of the heart is called blood pressure. Normal BP is 120(systolic)
body except lungs and back to heart constitutes systemic /80 (diastolic).
circulation.
 It is a biological process by which an organism removes harmful
metabolic wastes from the body

Excretory system in humans removes the nitrogen containing Plants excrete various waste products during their life
wastes such as urea in the form of urine through the kidney. processes.

Ureter Urinary Bladder Urethra

They are paired, thin muscular tubes coming Urine is stored here It is a duct which transmits urine
from each kidney and open into urinary bladder. temporarily. from the urinary bladder to the
They help in passage of urine. exterior of the body.

Kidney Gaseous Waste Products

It is the main organ of excretory system. It is reddish Carbon dioxide and oxygen are excreted out through
brown and bean-shaped organ. stomata and lenticels.
Functions of Kidney
● Removal of excess water and waste .
● Regulation of blood plasma concentration. Liquid Waste Products
● Regulation of blood pH. Plants get rid of excess water by transpiration through
stomata.

Nephron
Each kidney is made up of thousands of tiny tubules Solid Waste Products
called nephron. It is the structural and functional unit of
Some plants store waste substances in cell vacuoles and
kidney.
tissues with dead cells, get rid of them by dropping their
leaves.

Formation of Urine
● Ultrafiltration of blood occurs in glomerulus of
Useful Plant Wastes
Bowman's capsule. Some plants wastes are useful for human beings.
● Selective reabsorption of useful substances occurs in Examples:
tubule, forming urine. ● Essential oils.
● Gums to make adhesives and resins to make glazing
agents.
● Natural rubber for tyre industry and tannin for
Removal of Urine treatment of leather.
Urine is stored in urinary bladder and pass out through
urethra, under nervous control.

Artificial Kidney
It is a device that removes nitrogenous wastes products
from blood through dialysis, in case of kidney failure.
 MIND
Control and Coordination
The working together of various organs of a living organism in a systematic, controlled and
efficient way to produce proper response to various stimuli is known as coordination.

Coordination in Humans Coordination in Plants

Humans have nervous system and hormones to control and Plants use electrical-chemical means to convey the
coordinate response to the change in environment. information from one cell to the other. Plants cells can
change their shape by changing the amount of water in
them. The ability of plant to detect change and respond to
Nervous System it is called sensitivity of plant.
It is a system of neurons, nerves and nervous organs which
links, coordinates and controls the activities of different organs
in the body. Plant Movements
Plants show two types of movements.

Functions of Nervous system

● Regulates voluntary and involuntary movements.
● Collects information from outside world. Tropic Movements Nastic Movements
● Helps in thinking and reasoning . Movement of plant occurs in Movement occurs irrespective
● Controls reflex action of human body. direction of stimulus, to direction of stimuli,
e.g. phototropism, geotropism e.g. photonasty, thigmonasty
hydrotropism and chemotropism. thermonasty and seismonasty.
Neurons
They are structural and functional units of nervous system
which detect information from environment. They are known Plant Hormones
as longest cell of body with length of 90-100 cm each. They They are chemical substances
consist of cell body, dendrites, axon and nerve endings. Animal Hormones
produced naturally in plant and help
Neurons are of three types They transfer information in
to regulate growth, development and
● Sensory ● Motor ● Relay organism. They are secreted
responses.
by endocrine glands and are
Auxin helps to grow longer.
also known as chemical
messengers. Gibbrellins help in growth of the stem.
Synapse Cytokinins promote cell division.
Small gap between neurons where nerve impulse passes Abscisic acid inhibits growth.
from one neuron to another.
Endocrine glands
They include pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal glands and
Reflex Action gonads; and secrete hormones.
It is a rapid, automatic response to the stimulus that is
controlled through the spinal cord.
Hormonal Disorders
l Dwarfism Hyposecretion of growth hormone.
Brain l Gigantism Hypersecretion of growth hormone.
It is the main coordinating centre of the body which enables l Diabetes When amount of insulin secreted by the body is in
an organism to think and take decisions. It is divided into less concentration.
three parts, i.e. forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. Brain and l Goitre Iodine deficiency that causes less secretion of
spinal cord constitute the central nervous system. thyroxine.

Peripheral Nervous System Feedback Mechanism

Consists of all the nerves that connects different parts of The amount and timing of hormones released are controlled
body, i.e. cranial, spinal and visceral. by feedback mechanism.
 MIND
Light : Reflection and Refraction

REFLECTION
When a light ray falls on smooth surface it
bounces back in same medium, it is called
reflection of light. Convex Mirror Nature of Image and its Formation
Whose reflecting surface is curved
outward. Also called diverging mirror Image
Focal length = positive Object ? Between F & P
Magnification (m) = positive i M ? Diminished
Laws of Reflection At 4 r
A ? Virtual and erect
? Incident ray, reflected ray and normal all lie in
A′
same plane at same point.
B
? Angle of incidence (∠i) = angle of reflection Object P B′ F C
(∠r). Spherical Mirror At any point
Whose reflecting surface is curved. between 4 & P
N
Object M Image
Mirror At 4 ? Virtual
It is a smooth reflecting surface whose one Concave Mirror ? Point sized
side is polished. Whose reflecting surface is curved ? Behind mirror
inward. P F
Also called converging mirror
Focal length = negative
Plane Mirror Magnification (m) = – ve or + ve N
Whose reflecting surface is
plane.
Focal length = infinity (¥)
Nature of image
? Always forms virtual image
? Object distance (u) is always Nature of Image & its Formation
equal to the image distance
(v). M
Object (beyond C)

M M A D
Object (At C)

? Always erect image is formed A D A

i
Object (at 4)

behind the mirror. r B

B′ P B′ C P
? Magnification (m) of the plane P B F
mirror is +1, which means C F C F
A′ A′ E
the size of object is equal to
B N
size of image. N D N Image
Image Image
? Real, inverted
? Real, inverted ? Real, inverted
? At C
? At F ? Between C and F
? Same size
? Diminished ? Diminished
Image Formation
Flat mirror Where, M E Object (between F & P)
Object (between F & C) M E Object (at F)
(u = v) A′
A D M E
A D B
C C A
B′ P
P F
BF i
C F B r P B′
At infinity N
N
A′ Image Image
? Real, inverted ? Virtual, erect N
u v Image
? Real, inverted ? At infinity ? Behind mirror
? Beyond C ? Magnified ? Enlarged
? Enlarged
 REFRACTION Laws of Refraction
When light rays travel from one medium to other, ? Incident ray, refracted ray and normal all lie in
either they bend towards the normal or away from the same plane, at a same point.
the normal, it is called refraction of light. ? Ratio of sine of angle i and sine of angle r is a
constant called refractive index.
i.e., sin i = constant = µ
sin r
? It is also called Snell's law . Concave Lens
Lens ? It is also called diverging lens.
A piece of glass or other transparent material with
curved sides for concentrating or dispersing light ? Focal length = – ve
rays, used single (in magnifying glass) or with ? Magnification (m) = + ve
other lens (in a telescope) is called lens.

Image Formation & its Nature

Object (at infinity) M Image
Sign Convention Convex Lens ? At focus
A ? It is also called converging ? Virtual, erect
Direction of lens. ? Point sized
Height upwards

incident light ? Focal length = + ve 2F1 F1 O

positive

? Magnification (m) = – ve
Distance towards or + ve
Distance towards right positive
B BN left negative N
XN X
P Object (any point between 4 and O)
Height downwards M
A Image
negative
? Between F1 and O
Mirror A′
? Virtual, erect
A′ ? Diminished
2F1 B F1 B′ O

Image Formation & its Nature Power of Lens (P)

If is defined as the reciprocal of
Object (4) Image focal length in metre.
Image
? Real
? Real, inverted
i.e. Power (P) = 1 (meter)
? At focus Object f
F 2F P ′ F 2F ? Beyond 2F SI unit of Power = dioptre (D)
P P P ′
2F′ F′ 2F ′ F′ Image
(Between F and 2F)
Image
? Real, inverted
? Between F & 2F Image For convex lens, For concave
Object F 2F Object F 2F ? Real, inverted P = + ve lens, P = – ve
Image P ′
P
(at F ′) 2F ′ F ′ P ′ ? At 4
Beyond 2F ′ F′
2F ′

Image
Object
2F
? Real, inverted Image
F 2F Image
F P ′ ? At 2F P ? Virtual, erect
P
2F ′ F′ Image 2F ′ F′ P′
(Between ? On same side
(at 2F)
F and O) of object
 Human Eye and The Colourful World

HUMAN EYE REFRACTION SCATTERING

OF LIGHT

Structure and Function Defects of Vision Prism Atmosphere

Cornea Myopia Angle of Deviation Atmospheric

It is a transparent membrane (Short sightedness) In this,
covering in front of eye.
It is the angle between incident and Refraction
a person is not able to see emergent ray. Refraction of light due to
Function Maximum distant objects, but can see It depends on angle of prism, angle multiple layers of
refraction of light takes place. nearby objects. of incidence and angle of atmosphere is called
Image formed before retina emergence. atmospheric refraction.
and corrected by concave
lens.
Lens
It is a transparent living
material.
Dispersion Applications
It is a phenomenon of splitting of
Function Focus image on Hypermetropia
retina. light into its constituent colours.
(Long sightedness) In this, Stars seem higher
a person is not able to see Cause of dispersion is due to
different velocities of light in same than they actually
nearby objects. are due to
medium.
Iris Image is formed behind atmospheric
It is a muscular diaphragm. retina and corrected by Red light deviates least.
refraction.
Function Controls size of pupil. convex lens. Violet light deviates maximum.

Twinkling of stars is
due to atmospheric
Pupil Presbyopia Rainbow refraction.
It is a small hole between iris. It is due to old age mostly It is natural dispersion of light
Function Regulates entry of farsightedness. formed by the rain drop, when
light. Corrected by bifocal lens sunlight falls on it.
Rainbow is formed due to We see the sun for
refraction, dispersion and total few minutes even
internal reflection of light. after it has actually
Ciliary Muscle Astigmatism set.
It is a muscle which hold the
In this defect, a person can’t
eye lens.
identify vertical and
Function Helps in
accommodation.
horizontal lines. Applications
Corrected by cylindrical lens. Sky appears blue due to large
scattering of blue colour in
comparison with others.
Retina Tyndall effect - The effect by
It has rod and cone cells. Colour Blindness which if light ray is passed
Function Image formation It is a genetic defect.
through colloidal solution,
takes place. Persons cannot identify
formation of tyndall cone takes Reflection of light from an object in all
colours.
place. directions is called scattering of light.
It can’t be corrected.
Optic Nerve
It is made up of nerve optical
Vitreous Humour Conditions for Scattering
fibre.
Function Transmits visual The liquid between eye lens ? Small particle scatters shorter wavelength.
information to brain. and retina. ? Large particle scatters longer wavelength.
Function Provides the eye
its form and shape.
Aqueous Humour
The liquid between cornea and
eye lens.
Function Helps to refract light
to be focused on retina,
maintains intraocular pressure.
 MIND
Our Environment

Ecosystem Human Impact on Environment

It was introduced by Tansley in 1935. All the interacting
organisms in an area together with the non-living components
of the environment.

Waste Substances Ozone Depletion

The left over or discarded Formation of ozone
Types of Components Food Chain substance. It can be in the solid, Ozone (O3) is a molecule
Ecosystem of Ecosystem Link of organisms liquid or gaseous forms. formed by three atoms of
through which energy is oxygen.
transferred in the form O2 → O + O
of food. UV

Unidirectional flow Biodegradable O + O2 → O3 (Ozone)

Natural Artificial from one organism to Substances It shields the surface of
Naturally existing without Created and maintained another. ? These can be broken the earth from UV rays
human support. by humans. down into simple of the Sun.
? Terrestrial (desert, The largest man-made harmless forms naturally
Use of CFCs have led to the
forest, etc). ecosystem is Energy Flow by action of
deletion of ozone layer.
agroecosystem. Food chain shows how microorganisms.
? Aquatic (ponds, lakes, e.g., aquariums, parks,
estuaries, etc). food and energy passes ? Pollute environment when
botanical gardens, etc. from one organism to present in huge
another in a habitat. quantities.
e.g., Livestock waste, left
over food articles, etc. Garbage
Biotic Components
Include all the living organisms present in the ecosystem. Trophic Level Management
Also include mainly three categories of organisms The transfer of food or ? The household waste is
? Producers (make their own food) e.g., plants. energy in the various steps Non-biodegradable called garbage.
in the food chain forms Substances ? The waste should be
? Consumers (depend on producers for their nutritional trophic level. disposed off in a scientific
requirements)e.g., grazing animals, humans. ? These cannot be broken
down into simpler way by segregating waste
? Only 10% energy is
? Decomposers organisms of decay, feed on decaying available to the next harmless forms by into biodegradable, non-
and dead matter, e.g., bacteria fungi. microorganisms. biodegradable materials,
trophic level in chain.
? Pollute the environment etc.
? Producers occupy first
trophic level. majorly. e.g., plastic, ? Methods include
heavy metals etc. Recycling
? Primary Consumers Composting
Abiotic Components occupy second trophic
Non-living features of ecosystem on which level. Incineration
an organism depends. It includes physical Landfills
? Secondary consumers Biological Magnification Sewage treatment
factors as light, temperature, wind, etc. occupy third trophic
level. Phenomenon of progressive Biogas production.
increase in the concentration of
toxicant at each successive trophic
level.
Food Web e.g., Pesticides like DDT, sprinkled
Network of various food
on plants enters the body of human
chains being inter connected
beings through the food chain.
at various trophic levels.