(4)The Critical Literature Review or a second review of the

literature,

(a) What is literature review?

A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. The literature

review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a particular area of
research.

(b)The purpose of a literature review or function of literature review

1. The purpose of a literature review is to convey to the reader previous knowledge & facts
established on a topic, & their strength & weakness.
2. Identification of a research problem or refinement of research questions.
3. Generation of useful research questions.
4. Orientation to what is known & not known about an area of inquiry
5. Determination of any gaps in a body of knowledge.
6. Discovery of unanswered questions about subjects, concepts or problems.
7. Identification of relevant theoretical or conceptual framework for research problems.
8. Development of hypothesis to be tested in a research study.
9. Helps in planning the methodology of the present research study.
10. It also helps in development of research instruments

(c) How to approach the literature review?

The first step of a literature review involves the identification of the various published and
unpublished materials that are available on the topic of interest, and gaining access to these.

Textbooks

Text book is a book used as a standard work for the study of a particular subject.

Textbooks are a useful source of theory in a specific area. An advantage of textbooks is that they
can cover a broad range of topics. Textbooks can cover a topic much more thoroughly than
articles can.

Journals

A journal is a scholarly publication containing articles written by researchers, professors

and other experts. Journals focus on a specific discipline or field of study. Both academic and
professional journals are important sources of up‐to‐date information

Theses
A thesis is a type of research paper based on your original research. It is usually submitted as the
final step of a master’s program or a capstone to a bachelor’s degree

PhD theses often contain an exhaustive review of the literature in a specific area. Most PhD
theses include several empirical chapters. These chapters often have the same structure and
characteristics as academic journal articles.

Conference proceedings

Conference proceedings can be useful in providing the latest research, or research that has not
(yet) been published. Conference proceedings are very up to date, and for this reason this
information source is quite valuable

Unpublished manuscripts

The APA defines an unpublished manuscript as any information source that is not “officially”
released by an individual, publishing house, or other company. Examples of unpublished
manuscripts may include papers accepted for publication but still “in press,” data from an
unpublished study, letters, manuscripts in preparation, and personal communications (including
e‐mails). Unpublished manuscripts are often very up to date

Reports
Government departments and corporations commission or carry out a large amount of research.
Their published findings provide a useful source of specific market, industry, or company
information.

Newspapers
Newspapers provide up‐to‐date business information. They are a useful source of specific
market, industry, or company information. Note that opinions in newspapers are not always
unbiased.

The Internet

The amount of information that can be found on the World Wide Web is enormous. You can
search for (the details of) books, journals and journal articles, and conference proceedings, as
well as for specialized data such as company publications and reports. The number of
newspapers, magazines, and journals that is available electronically is enormous.

Evaluating the literature

For each publication, ask yourself

- is the main research question or problem statement presented in a clear and analytical way?
- is the relevance of the research question made transparent?
- Does this study build directly upon previous research?
- Will the study make a contribution to the field?
- Is there a theory that guides the research?
- Is the theory described relevant and is it explained in an understandable, structured, and
convincing manner?
- Are the methods used in the study explained in a clear manner (description of methods)?
-Is the choice of certain methods motivated in a convincing way (justification of methods)?
- Is the sample appropriate?
- Are the research design and/or the questionnaire appropriate for this study?
- Are the measures of the variables valid and reliable?
- Has the author used the appropriate quantitative and/or qualitative techniques?
- Do the conclusions result from the findings of the study?
- Do the conclusions give a clear answer to the main research question?
- Has the author considered the limitations of the study?

- Has the author presented the limitations in the article?

Documenting the literature review

Documenting the literature review is important to convince the reader that the researcher is
knowledgeable about the problem area and has done the preliminary homework that is necessary
to conduct the research.

(1) Introduce the subject of study, (2) identify the problem statement, and (3) build on previous
research to offer the basis from which to get to the next steps of the theoretical framework and
hypothesis development

step-by-step framework for documenting literature review process:

 Provide a purpose statement.

 Document the databases or search engines used.
 Specify the limits applied to the search.
 List the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the search.
 List the search terms used.
 Document the search process for each search resource used.
 Assess retrieved articles for relevance.
 Document a summary table of included articles.
 Provide a statement specifying the number of retrieved articles.

(5)Theoretical Framework and Hypothesis Development

Define theoretical framework

1. A theoretical framework represents your beliefs on how certain phenomena (or variables or
concepts) are related to each other (a model) and an explanation of why you believe that these
variables are associated with each other (a theory).

2. The Theoretical Framework elaborates the relationship among the variables, explains the
theory underlying these relations and describes the nature and direction of the relationship.

The process of building a theoretical framework includes:

1. The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly defined.

2. A conceptual model that describes the relationships between the variables in the model should
be given.

3. There should be a clear explanation of why we expect these relationships to exist.

Discuss the Need of theoretical framework in deductive research

1. It provides a theory-driven approach to the current study.

2. It gives the study a well-defined and proven basis of argument.

3. It offers an explanation of the study's significance and validity.

4. It shows where the researcher intends to fill in gaps of knowledge and practice.

5. It provides broader guidelines and a general set of ideas within which a research study can be
fit in.

6. It provides the structure to define how the scholars shall approach the thesis as a whole.

7. It helps the researcher see clearly the variables of the study;

8. It can provide him with a general framework for data analysis;

9. It is essential in preparing a research proposal using descriptive and experimental methods.

Component of theoretical framework

1. The variables considered relevant to the study should be clearly defined.

2. A conceptual model that describes the relationships between the variables in the model should
be given.

3. There should be a clear explanation of why we expect these relationships to exist.

4. Showing how your research fits into existing research.

Define variable discuss different types of variables in research

variable

1. A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ at
various times for the same object or person, or at the same time for different objects or persons

2.A variable is any property, characteristic, number, or a quantity that increases or decreases over
time or can take on different values (as opposed to constants, such as n, that do not vary) in
different situations.

According to Kerlinger, ‘A variable is a property that takes on different values. A variable is a

symbol to which numerals or values are attached’

A variable can be age, blood pressure, height, exam score, sea level, time, temperature etc.

Types of Variables

Four main types of variables are:

1. The dependent variable (also known as the criterion variable).

2. The independent variable (also known as the predictor variable)

3. The moderating variable.

4. Mediating variable.

Dependent Variable

A dependent variable is a variable that is dependent on the value of another variable. So if

anything in the first variable changes then the dependent variable changes too
example

‘Weight’ is often dependent on the ‘age’ of an individual. Here, ‘weight’ is the dependent
variable.

Characteristic

1. The dependent variable is the variable of primary interest to the researcher.

2. The researcher’s goal is to understand and describe the dependent variable that lends itself for
investigation as a viable factor.

3. Through the analysis of the dependent variable (i.e., finding what variables influences it), it is
possible to find answers or solutions to the problem.

Independent Variable

An independent variable is a variable that is unaffected by other variables of the study. In

studies, these variables could be regarded as the factors affecting the key research term.

Example

Someone’s age might be an independent variable. Other factors (such as what they eat, how
much they go to school, how much television they watch) aren't going to change a person's age.

Characteristic

1. An independent variable is one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or
negative way.

2. When the independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present

3. With each unit of increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the
dependent variable also.

Moderating variable

A moderating variable is a type of variable that affects the relationship between a dependent
variable and an independent variable.

Characteristics

1. Moderatuing variable alters the strength or direction of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variable

2. Change the impact of the independent variable on dependent variable.

3. Absence or presence can change the relationship.

Example

A strong relationship has been observed between the quality of library facilities (X) and the
performance of the students (Y). It is nevertheless contingent on the interest of the students. It
means that only those students who have the interest to use the library will show improved
performance in their studies. In this relationship interest is moderating variable i.e. which
moderates the strength of the association between X and Y variables.

Mediating variable

A mediator variable is the variable that causes mediation in the dependent and the independent
variables. In other words, it explains the relationship between the dependent variable and the
independent variable.

Example

A study on socioeconomic status and reading ability in children

Mediating variable

Parental education level

This means that socioeconomic status affects reading ability mainly through its influence on
parental education levels.

Characteristic

1 It explains how or why there is a relation between two variables.

2. A mediator can be a potential mechanism by which an independent variable can produce

changes on a dependent variable

How theory is generated

The purpose of science concerns the expansion of knowledge and the search for truth. Theory
Generating is the means by which basic researchers hope to achieve this purpose.

Define the meaning of theory

A formal, logical explanation of some events that includes predictions of how things relate to one
another

Theories are simply models designed to help us better understand reality and to understand the
logic behind things we observe.

A theory can be built through a process of reviewing previous findings of similar studies, simple
logical deduction, and/or knowledge of applicable theoretical areas

What Are the Goals of Theory?

There are two primary goals of theory.

The first is to understand the relationships among various phenomena. A theory provides a
picture of the linkages among different concepts, allowing us to better comprehend how they
affect one another.

The second goal is to predict. Once we have an understanding of the relationships among
concepts, we can then predict what will happen if we change one factor. For example, if we
understand the relationship between advertising expenditures and retail sales, we can then predict
the impact of decreasing or increasing our advertising expenditures.

How theories are generated

A theory can be built through a process of reviewing previous findings of similar studies or
knowledge of applicable theoretical areas. .

At the abstract, conceptual level, a theory may be generated with deductive reasoning

At the empirical level, a theory may be generated with inductive reasoning.

Hypothesis Development

Hypothesis

A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative (Something that is uncertain), yet testable, statement,
which predicts what you expect to find in your empirical data

Hypotheses can be defined as logically conjectured (guesswork) relationships between two or

more variables expressed in the form of testable statements. By testing the hypotheses and
confirming the conjectured relationships, it is expected that solutions can be found to correct the
problem encountered

.
Example

Workforce diversity has a positive effect on organizational effectiveness.

The above is a testable statement. By measuring the extent of workforce diversity and
organizational effectiveness, we can statistically examine the relationship between these two
variables to see if there is a significant (positive) correlation between the Two.

If we do find this to be the case, then the hypothesis is substantiated. If a significant correlation
is not found, then the hypothesis has not been substantiated.

Statement of hypotheses: formats

If–then statements

To examine whether or not the conjectured relationships or differences exist, these hypotheses
can be set either as propositions or in the form of if–then statements. The two formats can be
seen in the following two examples.

1. The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their exam
scores.

2. If a first-year student starts attending more lectures, then their exam scores will
improve.

,
Directional and no directional hypotheses
If, in stating the relationship between two variables or comparing two groups, terms such as
positive, negative, more than, less than, and the like are used, then these are directional
hypotheses because the direction of the relationship between the variables (positive/negative) is
indicated

1. the greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of employees.

2. Women are more motivated than men.

No directional hypotheses

No directional hypotheses are those that do postulate a relationship or difference, but

Offer no indication of the direction of these relationships or differences

Example

Adults will correctly recall more words than children.

Null and alternate hypotheses

Null hypothesis(H )

The conjecture (guess) that postulates no differences or no relationship between or among

variables
.
For example, you can say that “The study will show that there is no correlation between marriage
and happiness.”

Alternate hypothesis (H )

An educated conjecture that sets the parameters one expects to find. The alternate hypothesis is
tested to see whether or not the null is to be rejected.
.
For example

“The study will show that there is correlation between marriage and happiness.
Characteristics of good hypotheses

Power of Prediction

One of the valuable attribute of a good hypothesis is to predict for future. It not only clears the
present problematic situation but also predict for the future that what would be happened in the
coming time.

Closest to observable things

A hypothesis must have close contact with observable things. It does not believe on air castles
but it is based on observation. .The verification of a hypothesis is based on observable things.

Simplicity

A hypothesis should be so dabble to every layman, P.V young says, “A hypothesis wo0uld be
simple, if a researcher has more in sight towards the problem”. So, a good hypothesis must be
simple and have no complexity.

Clarity

A hypothesis must be conceptually clear. It should be clear from ambiguous information’s. The
terminology used in it must be clear and acceptable to everyone.

Testability

A good hypothesis should be tested empirically.

Relevant to Problem

If a hypothesis is relevant to a particular problem, it would be considered as good one.

Specific

It should be formulated for a particular and specific problem. It should not include
generalization.

Relevant to available Techniques

Hypothesis must be relevant to the techniques which is available for testing.

Fruitful for new Discoveries

It should be able to provide new suggestions and ways of knowledge. J.S. Mill, one of the
eminent researcher says that “Hypothesis is the best source of new knowledge it creates new
ways of discoveries”.

Consistency & Harmony

It should be out of contradictions and conflicts. There must be a close relationship between
variables which one is dependent

(6)Elements of Research Design

MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design is a plan for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data, created to
answer your research questions.

NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

1. It Provides firm foundation to the Endeavour.(efforts)

2. It reduces inaccuracy.

3. It helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability.

4. It eliminates bias and marginal errors

5. It Minimizes wastage of time

6 it Reduce uncertainty, confusion and practical haphazard related to any research problem

7. It Helpful for collecting research materials.

8. It Helpful for testing of hypothesis.

9. It. Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower, time,
and efforts.

10. It provides an overview to other experts

ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Research strategies

A strategy is a plan for achieving a certain goal. A research strategy will help you to meet your
research objective(s) and to answer the research questions of your study. The choice for a
particular research strategy will therefore depend on the research objective(s) and (the type of)
research questions of your study

Experiments

Experiments are usually associated with a hypothetico‐deductive approach to research. The

purpose of an experiment is to study causal relationships between variables. Experimental
designs are less useful or appropriate for answering exploratory and descriptive research
questions.

In an experiment, the researcher manipulates the independent variable to study the effect of this
manipulation on the dependent variable. In other words, the researcher deliberately changes a
certain variable (or certain variables),

Survey research

A survey is a system for collecting information from or about people to describe, compare, or
explain their knowledge, attitudes, and behavior (Fink, 2003).

The questions in survey instruments are typically arranged into self‐administered questionnaires
that a respondent completes on his or her own, either on paper or via the computer. Other survey
instruments are interviews and structured observation.

Ethnography
Ethnography is a research strategy that has its roots in anthropology. It is a strategy in which the
researcher “closely observes, records, and engages in the daily life of another culture [. . .] and
then writes accounts of this culture, emphasizing descriptive detail”

Participant observation is closely related to ethnography. Other methods, such as interviews and
questionnaires, may also be used to collect data in ethnographic research.

Case studies

Case studies focus on collecting information about a specific object, event or activity, such as a
particular business unit or organization. In case studies, the case is the individual, the group, the
organization, the event, or the situation the researcher is interested in.

Case studies may provide both qualitative and quantitative data for analysis and interpretation.
As in experimental research, hypotheses can be developed in case studies as well.

Grounded theory
Grounded theory is a systematic set of procedures to develop an inductively derived theory from
the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Important tools of grounded theory are theoretical sampling,
coding, and constant comparison.

Action research (applied research)

Action research refers to scientific study and research that seeks to solve practical problems. This
type of research can be used in a variety of ways. For example, it is used to find solutions to
everyday problems, cure illness, and develop innovative technologies

Extent of researcher interference with the study

The extent of interference (Intervention) by the researcher has a direct bearing on whether the
study undertaken is causal or Correlation.

Correlation study

A Correlation study is conducted in a natural environment with minimal interference by the

researcher with the normal flow of the events.

Example:

Training effectiveness

Casual study

A casual study is conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationships; the researcher tries to

manipulate certain variables so as to study the effects of such manipulation on the depended
variable of interest.

Example

Companies can use causal research to study advertisement campaigns.

study setting

1. Non contrived setting:

Non contrived can be done in natural environment

Exploratory and descriptive (correlation) conducted in non contrived setting

2. Contrived setting

-contrived research can be done in the artificial environment

-casual studies are done in contrived setting.

Unit of analysis: individuals, dyads, groups, organizations, cultures

One of the most important elements in a research design is the unit of analysis. The unit of
analysis is the major entity that you are analyzing in your study. For instance, any of the
following could be a unit of analysis in a study:

Individuals
Dyads
Groups
Organizations
Cultures

1. For instance, the problem statement focuses on how to raise the motivational levels of
employees in general, and then we are interested in individual employees in the organization.
Here the unit of analysis is the individual.

2. If the researcher is interested in studying two‐person interactions, then several two‐person

groups, also known as dyads, will become the unit of analysis. Analysis of husband–wife
interactions in families and supervisor–subordinate relationships in the workplace are good
examples of dyads as the unit of analysis.

3. If the problem statement is related to group effectiveness, then the unit of analysis will be at
the group level.

4. If we are comparing different departments in the organization, then the data analysis will be
done at the departmental level

5. If we want to study cultural differences among nations, we will have to collect data from
Different countries and study the underlying patterns of culture in each country.

Time horizon:

1. Cross-section studies (one shot)

Cross-sectional study is defined as an observational study where data is collected as a whole to
study a population at a single point in time to examine the relationship between variables of
interest.

2. Longitudinal studies

Longitudinal study, like the cross-sectional study, is also an observational study, in which data is
gathered from the same sample repeatedly over an extended period of time.

(7)Overview of research methods, Quantitative (multivariate) methods,

Qualitative (interpretive) methods, mixed methods

Research methods
Research methods are the strategies, processes or techniques utilized in the collection of data or
evidence for analysis in order to uncover new information or create better understanding of a
topic.
Qualitative Research Methods
Qualitative research is a type of research that aims to gather and analyze non-numerical data in
order to gain an understanding of individuals' social reality, including understanding their
attitudes, beliefs, and motivation.

When to use qualitative research methods

Researchers make use of qualitative research methods when they need to capture accurate, in-
depth insights. It is very useful to capture “factual data”.

Types of Qualitative Research Methods are as follows:

(1) Questionnaires Interviews (2) Observation (3) Focus Groups (4) Ethnographic studies
(5) Textual Analysis (6) Case Study
Questionnaires
-----------------------------------------------------------
Interview
Interview is a research method in which the interviewer meets with one respondent at a time to
ask questions. This type of interview is used to collect qualitative data from respondents about
their opinions, beliefs, or experiences.
Interview Methods
Following are some Interview Methods:
1. In-person interviews
2. Telephone interviews
3. Online interviews
1. In-person interviews (face to face interview)
In-person interview is a type of qualitative research method that involves conducting face-to-face
interviews with respondents. This method is used to gather in-depth information about a
respondent’s thoughts, feelings, and experiences.
Advantages
-Allow for more in-depth data collection and comprehensive understanding
-Body language and facial expressions are more clearly identified and understood
-The interviewer can probe for explanations of responses
Disadvantage
Interviews are more time consuming to recruit and conduct
As a result of timing and travel, face to face interviews can be expensive
Interviews can deliver biased responses
Telephone interviews
A telephone interview is a short, informal conversation between two people. It is typically used
to screen candidates for a job or to gather information for a research project.

advantages

- more cost effective and easier to conduct than Fact to face interviews

-Can deliver similar quality data

-Multiple points of view can be gathered through multiple interviews

-Interviews can be conducted over a wider geographic scope, even globally

-Answers to questions are equally as valid as Face to face interviews

Disadvantages

-Respondents have to actually answer the call and can hang up at any time

-Behavior and body language cannot be observed

-Interviews tend to be shorter than F2F interviews

-Cannot use any visual aids to assist in the interviewing

Online interviews
An online interview is a type of interview that takes place via the internet, usually using video
conferencing software such as Skype or Google Hangouts. Online interviews can be conducted
in real time, or they can be recorded and viewed at a later time.
-Online interviews can provide great savings in costs
-Online interviews present opportunities to interview individuals and/or groups who are widely
geographically distributed,
-The online interviewer has no need for the traditional tools of interviewing such as tapes, tape
recorders.
-Online interviews can provide great flexibility for the interviewer and participants
-A traditional face-to-face interview requires the interviewer and participant to agree a venue for
the interview to take place. The online interviewer has no need to arrange a venue as each
individual can take part wherever is convenient and the facilitation of the online interview
requires only access to the internet.
When to use interview
Interviews can be especially useful when the researcher wants to explore sensitive topics or
when there is a need for detailed information.
Advantages of Interview
- It provides a more personal connection between the interviewer and the respondent.
- It allows for a more in-depth conversation.
-It provides the opportunity for respondents to ask questions of the interviewer,
- It allows for clarification of responses and probing of issues
Disadvantages of Interview
-This type of interview can be very time-consuming.
- It is difficult to generalize the results from a one-to-one interview to a larger population.
-The interviewer may not be able to ask all the questions they want to due to the limited
amount of time they have with the respondent.
Focus group
Focus group is a type of research method that involves bringing together a small group of people
to discuss a certain topic. The discussion is usually led by a moderator, who will ask questions
and guide the conversation
When to use focus group
Focus groups can be used to gather insights on everything from consumer behavior to political
opinions.
Advantages of Focus Group
-They allow for in-depth exploration of a topic.
-They can provide insights that may be difficult to obtain through other methods such as
surveys.
- This can be helpful in understanding how participants feel about a certain issue or product.
-Focus groups offer flexibility in terms of format and length.
Disadvantages of Focus Groups
-They may not be representative of the larger population.
-Groups rely on participants’ self-reported data, which may be inaccurate or biased
Ethnographic
Ethnography is the study of people and cultures. It is a research method used to understand and
describe people’s lived experiences, behaviors, and beliefs.
When to Use Ethnographic Research
When deciding whether or not to use ethnographic research, consider the following factors:
The purpose of your research:
Ethnographic research is best suited for projects that aim to understand the lived experience of
people within a culture.
The Scope of Your Project:
Ethnographic research requires close interaction with participants over an extended period of
time.
The Nature of Your Project:
Ethnographic research is particularly well suited for projects that seek to understand how people
make sense of their world.
Advantages of Ethnographic Research
The researcher can understand the cultural context in which the behavior being studied occurs.
The researcher looks at all aspects of culture rather than just a single behavior or
phenomenon.
- It can be used to track changes in culture over time.
-It provides a detailed description of the culture being studied.
- It provides a detailed description of the culture being studied in a specific place.

Disadvantages of Ethnographic Research

It can be time-consuming and expensive to conduct an ethnographic study.
It can be difficult to generalize the findings from an ethnographic study to other populations or
cultures.
Different researchers could come up with different conclusions based on the same data.
Textual Analysis
Textual analysis is the process of examining a text in order to understand its meaning. Textual
analysis involves analyzing the structure, content, and style of a text. It can be used to analyze
any type of text, including literature, poetry, speeches, and scientific papers.
When to use Textual Analysis
When your research question involves interpretation or understanding the meaning of the text
-When you want to analyze a large body of text.
-When you want to analyze an ambiguous text
Advantages of Textual Analysis
There are several advantages to using textual analysis.
Textual analysis can help you understand the author’s purpose.
It can help you identify themes.
It can help you determine the impact of the text.
Disadvantages of Textual Analysis
- It can be time-consuming.
- Different people may interpret a text in different ways, which can lead to disagreements
about its meaning.
- It can be complex.
Case Study
Case study is a research method that involves an in-depth, detailed examination of a single unit,
such as an individual, family, group, organization, community, or event. Case studies are usually
conducted by sociologists, psychologists, historians, anthropologists, or researchers from other
social science disciplines.
When to used case study
The case study method is useful when there is a need to obtain an in-depth appreciation of an
issue, event or phenomenon of interest, in its natural real-life context
Advantages of Case Study Research
It provides rich data that can be analyzed in depth.
It allows for the development of theory from data.
It can be used to test hypotheses.
Case studies can help to refine existing models.
It can be used for descriptive purposes.
Disadvantages of Case Study Research
- It can be difficult to generalize from the case study to other situations because the focus is on
a single case.
-It can be more difficult to determine the impact of the factors being studied.
-Case study research can be time-consuming and expensive.

Observation
Observation is the act of looking at and analyzing the world around you. Observational is a form
of research method that relies on observations of natural phenomena or human behavior.
Types of observation methods
Naturalistic Observation
Participant Observation
Structured Observation
Case Studies
Archival Research

Naturalistic Observation
This type of research involves observing subjects in their natural environment, without any
interference from the researcher. This allows for a more realistic and unbiased view of the
subject’s behavior.
Participant observation
In Participant observation the researcher becomes a part of the environment they are observing.
Structured Observation
Structured observation is a type of observational research in which the researcher observes the
behavior of subjects in a controlled environment.
Case Studies
In Case studies researcher observes the behavior of a small number of subjects over an extended
period of time.
Archival Research
Archival research is a type of observational research in which the researcher looks at records that
have been created by other people.
When to use Observational method
Observational research is best suited for collecting data about people’s behavior and actions.
Observational research requires time and effort to set up and carry out. If you have limited
resources, it may not be the best option
Advantages of Observation method
-The simplest method of data collection is the method of observation.
-The observation method is not as restricted as the experiment.
-the data collected by observation is much more reliable.
-The observation method is essential for studies on infants who are unable to understand the
details of research work and cannot express themselves clearly.
Disadvantages of Observation method
-Many respondents refuse to let researchers observe their activities, and due to this reason, not
everything is observed by the researcher.
- The observation method has no technique to study the subject’s past life.
-Observation is a prolonged and time-consuming method
- Observational studies can be subject to bias.

Quantitative Research Methods

Quantitative research is conducted in order to generate factual data and numerical data about a
particular research topic with the help of mathematical techniques

When to use Quantitative research

Types of Quantitative Research methods are as follows:

1. Quantitative survey

2. Secondary data collation and analysis

3. Statistical analysis

Quantitative survey or survey

Survey is a popular method of collecting primary data. The broad area of survey research
encompasses any measurement procedures that involve asking questions of respondents.

Survey is a flexible tool, which can produce both qualitative and quantitative information
depending on how they are structured and analyzed.

When should it be used?

When you need to generate primary data from a large number of sources to answer your research
question. Survey is a useful means of gathering data from businesses, community organizations
and residents.

Advantages
Survey research has a number of advantages over other types of research.

- Surveys allow researchers to gather information from a large number of people very quickly
and easily. This makes survey research an efficient way to collect data on a wide range of topics.
- Surveys can be used to collect both quantitative and qualitative data.
- They can be used to measure attitudes and opinions. Attitude measurement is an important
part of market research, political polling, and other types of social research.
 - Surveys are relatively cheap to conduct. This makes them a cost-effective way to gather data
on a wide range of topics.
Disadvantages
There are some disadvantages to using this method.

- Surveys can be expensive to administer and may require a lot of resources, such as staff time
and funding.
- Surveys may not be representative of the population they are meant to represent. This is
because surveys often rely on self-reported data, which can be inaccurate.
- Surveys can be time-consuming to complete, which may lead to low response rates.
- Survey responses may be influenced by social desirability bias, which means that people may
respond in a way that they believe is socially acceptable rather than answering truthfully.

2. Secondary data collation and analysis

This method refers to the review of existing information, and in the quantitative context may
involve the manipulation of statistical data.

It differs from primary research techniques in that the researcher does not collect the data directly
and cannot control the actual data collected, but can bring to bear new insights through
interpretation or presentation.

When should it be used?

The collection of secondary data can be an important first stage. The main use for this sort of
information is that it can provide a starting point for an evaluation or analysis to gain some
background knowledge and understanding. Secondary data collection is also useful for
contributing to the analysis and commentary throughout a research report.

Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis is a data analysis tool that helps draw meaningful conclusions from raw and
unstructured data. Statistical analysis is a mathematical method of interro-gating data.

There are two types of statistics:

• Descriptive statistics

• Inferential statistics

-Descriptive statistical analysis involves collecting, interpreting, analyzing, and summarizing

data to present them in the form of charts, graphs, and tables.
-The inferential statistical analysis focuses on drawing meaningful conclusions on the basis of
the data analyzed.

When should it be used?

You would use descriptive statistics if you wanted to summaries some data into a shorter form,
whereas, you would use inferential statistical analysis when you were trying to understand a
relationship.

Statistical Analysis Methods

Parametric tests

Mean

Mean or arithmetic mean or average mean is one of the most popular methods of statistical
analysis. Mean determines the overall trend of the data. There are different types of averages: the
mean, median, and mode.

Standard Deviation

The standard deviation measures the spread of the data about the mean value. It is useful in
comparing sets of data, which may have the same mean but a different range.

t -test

The t-test assesses whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each other

Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

This is used to test hypotheses when there are more than two means, analysis of variance can be
used to test differences for significance without increasing the error rate (Type I).

Pearson correlation

This is a common measure of the correlation between two variables. A correlation of +1 means
that there is a perfect positive linear relationship between variables. A correlation of -1 means
that there is a perfect negative linear relationship between variables

Regression

Regression is a statistical tool that helps determine the cause and effect relationship between the
variables. It is generally used to predict future trends and events.
Non-parametric tests

Median
The median is the middle of a distribution: half the scores are above the median and half are
below the median
Interquartile range
Spearman correlation
Spearman’s Rank Correlation is a technique used to test the direction and strength of the
relationship between two variables.

Mann-Whitney test

The Mann-Whitney test is a non- parametric test for assessing whether two samples of
observations come from the same distribution

Wilcoxon test

The Wilcoxon test compares two paired groups of data. It calculates the differences between
each set of pairs, and analyses the list of differences.

Mixed methods
Mixed methods research aims to answer research questions that cannot be answered by
“qualitative” or “quantitative” approaches alone.
Mixed methods research focuses on collecting, analyzing, and mixing both quantitative and
qualitative data in a single study or series of studies.

The attractiveness of this approach is that it allows researchers to combine inductive and
deductive thinking, to use more than one research method to address the research problem, and
to solve this problem using different types of data.

Triangulation

Triangulation is a technique that is also often associated with using mixed methods. The idea
behind triangulation is that one can be more confident in a result if the use of different methods
or sources leads to the same results. Triangulation requires that research is addressed from
multiple perspectives. Several kinds of triangulation are possible:

● Method triangulation: using multiple methods of data collection and analysis.

● Data triangulation: collecting data from several sources and at different time periods.
● Researcher triangulation: multiple researchers collect and analyze the data.
● Theory triangulation: multiple theories are used to interpret and explain the data.
.
EXAMPLE
(8)Research Proposal
Meaning of a Research Proposal

A research proposal is a detailed plan of a proposed study. It outlines what the researcher intends
to study, why it is important, and how they plan to conduct the research.

Types of Research Proposals

Components of a research proposal

The components of a research proposal typically include:

1. Title: A concise statement of the main topic and the key variables under investigation.
2. Abstract: A brief summary of the proposal, including the research question,
methodology, and significance.
3. Introduction: Background information on the research topic, a literature review, and the
research question or hypothesis.
4. Objectives: Clear and precise statements of the specific goals of the research.
5. Methodology: Detailed description of the research design, methods of data collection,
and analysis.
6. Significance: Explanation of the potential impact and importance of the research.
7. Timeline: A schedule outlining the stages of the research and the time allocated for each.
8. Budget: An estimate of the resources required for the research, including funding.
9. References: A list of the scholarly works cited in the proposal.

Need for a Research Proposal

1. Clarifies the Research Plan: A research proposal helps the researcher to clarify their
thoughts and systematically plan the research process. It ensures that the researcher has a
clear understanding of what they intend to study and how they will approach it.
2. Secures Funding: Many research projects require funding from external sources such as
universities, government agencies, or private organizations. A well-crafted research
proposal is essential to secure financial support.
3. Guides the Research: The proposal serves as a roadmap for the research, outlining the
objectives, methods, and expected outcomes. It helps keep the research focused and on
track.
4. Facilitates Approval: Academic and research institutions often require a research
proposal for the approval of a research project. This is to ensure that the research is
feasible, ethical, and aligns with the institution's goals and standards.
5. Demonstrates Feasibility: A research proposal demonstrates that the researcher has
conducted a thorough preliminary study and has a viable plan for conducting the
research. It shows that the research question is significant, the methodology is sound, and
the researcher is capable of completing the project.
 6. Identifies Potential Challenges: By planning the research in detail, the researcher can
identify potential challenges and obstacles that might arise during the study. This allows
for better preparation and problem-solving strategies.
7. Engages Stakeholders: A research proposal can engage stakeholders, such as
supervisors, colleagues, or community members, by clearly communicating the aims and
methods of the research. This can foster collaboration and support for the project

Oral Presentation (Key Components)

1. Introduction:
o Start with a brief introduction of yourself and your research topic.
o Provide an overview of the research problem and its significance.
2. Objectives and Hypotheses:
o Clearly state the research objectives and any hypotheses you will test.
3. Literature Review:
o Summarize key findings from the literature that support the need for your
research.
o Highlight gaps or controversies that your research aims to address.
4. Methodology:
o Describe the research design, data collection methods, and analysis techniques.
o Explain why these methods are appropriate for your research question.
5. Significance and Impact:
o Discuss the potential impact and importance of your research.
o Highlight how your research will contribute to the field and society.
6. Timeline and Budget:
o Provide a brief overview of your research timeline and budget (if applicable).
o Mention any key milestones and resource requirements.
7. Conclusion:
o Summarize the key points of your presentation.
o Reiterate the significance of your research and your readiness to undertake the
project.
8. Q&A Session:
o Be prepared to answer questions from the audience.
o Practice responding to potential questions to ensure confidence and clarity.

Tips for Effective Oral Presentations

 Know Your Audience: Tailor your presentation to the knowledge level and interests of
your audience.
 Clarity and Conciseness: Keep your presentation clear, concise, and focused on key
points.
 Visual Aids: Use slides or other visual aids to enhance your presentation and illustrate
important points.
 Practice: Rehearse your presentation multiple times to ensure smooth delivery and
confidence.
  Engage the Audience: Maintain eye contact, use appropriate body language, and invite
questions or feedback.
 Time Management: Stick to the allotted time for your presentation, ensuring you cover
all key points without rushing

Proposal Title: Investigating the Causes and Effects of Inflation on Economic Stability
and Growth

Abstract

This research aims to investigate the causes and effects of inflation on economic stability and
growth. By examining historical data and contemporary case studies, the study seeks to identify
the primary drivers of inflation and assess its impact on various economic indicators, such as
GDP growth, employment rates, and income distribution. The research will utilize a mixed-
methods approach, combining quantitative data analysis with qualitative insights from experts, to
provide a comprehensive understanding of inflation dynamics and inform effective policy
measures.

Introduction

Inflation, defined as the general increase in prices and the fall in the purchasing value of money,
is a critical economic phenomenon that affects every aspect of an economy. While moderate
inflation is often associated with economic growth, high and unpredictable inflation can lead to
economic instability, eroding purchasing power and savings. This research proposal seeks to
explore the complex relationship between inflation, economic stability, and growth by
investigating its causes, effects, and policy responses.

Research Objectives

1. Identify the primary causes of inflation

2. Examine the effects of inflation on economic stability
3. Evaluate policy responses to inflation
4. Model future inflation scenarios

Literature Review

The literature review will cover the following areas:

 Theoretical foundations of inflation, including demand-pull, cost-push, and built-in

inflation.
 Historical case studies of hyperinflation and moderate inflation periods.
 The impact of inflation on economic indicators such as GDP, employment, and income
distribution.
 Policy measures and their effectiveness in controlling inflation, including interest rate
adjustments, money supply regulation, and fiscal interventions.
Methodology

The research will employ a mixed-methods approach:

1. Quantitative Analysis:
o Data Collection: Gather historical inflation data from sources such as the
International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, and national statistical
agencies.
o Econometric Analysis: Use econometric models to analyze the relationship
between inflation and key economic indicators.
2. Qualitative Analysis:
o Expert Interviews: Conduct interviews with economists, policymakers, and
financial analysts to gain insights into the causes and effects of inflation.
o Case Studies: Analyze specific instances of inflation in different countries to
understand the context-specific drivers and outcomes.
3. Modeling and Simulation:
o Develop economic models to simulate future inflation scenarios under different
policy conditions.
o Use scenario analysis to explore the potential impact of various policy responses
on inflation and economic stability.

Significance

This research will contribute to the understanding of inflation dynamics and their implications
for economic stability and growth. The findings will provide valuable insights for policymakers,
economists, and financial institutions, aiding in the development of effective strategies to
manage inflation and promote sustainable economic growth.

Timeline

1. Literature Review and Data Collection: Months 1-3

2. Quantitative Analysis: Months 4-6
3. Qualitative Analysis: Months 7-9
4. Modeling and Simulation: Months 10-12
5. Report Writing and Dissemination: Months 13-15

Budget

1. Data Acquisition: $3,000

2. Software and Tools: $2,000
3. Travel for Interviews: $4,000
4. Research Assistants: $8,000
5. Miscellaneous Expenses: $1,000
6. Total: $18,000

References
 Blanchard, O. J. (2017). Macroeconomics. Pearson.
 Friedman, M. (1970). The Counter-Revolution in Monetary Theory. Institute of
Economic Affairs.
 Mankiw, N. G. (2019). Principles of Economics. Cengage Learning.
 Taylor, J. B. (1993). Discretion versus Policy Rules in Practice. Carnegie-Rochester
Conference Series on Public Policy, 39, 195-214