Photovoltaics

Photovoltaic effect

• The key property of a photovoltaic material is to convert light energy

to electric current. This conversion takes place due to the photovoltaic Material Band Gap (eV)
effect - a physical phenomenon in a semiconductor. Si Silicon 1.11
Ge Germanium 0.67
• Crystalline silicon is a semiconductor material widely used in CdTe Cadmium telluride 1.5
photovoltaics. It becomes conductive when the energy of the photons Cu2O Copper oxide 2.1
absorbed by the crystal surface is sufficient to raise the electron state Cu3N Copper nitride 1.75
from the valence band to the conduction band. This required amount
of energy to excite an electron is defined as band gap. GaP Gallium phosphide 2.26
GaAs Gallium arsenide 1.43
PbS Lead sulfide 0.37
• Band gap is an intrinsic property of semiconductors and eventually
Si3N4 Silicon nitride 5
has a direct influence on the photovoltaic cell voltage.
C Diamond 5.5
SiO2 Silica 9
Photovoltaic effect

• For example, if we have a photon with energy of 2 eV hitting silicon surface, 1.1 eV of that energy will
be used to move an electron to the conduction band; the rest of the energy (0.9 eV) will be dissipated
as heat. However, if a material with a greater band gap is used, for instance copper oxide, 2 eV is not
enough to free the electron. We would need a higher energy photon there.

• At the same time, if the band gap of the PV material is too small compared to the incident photon
energy, a significant amount of energy will be converted to heat, which is not a good thing for PV cell
itself.

• No matter how much higher the photon energy is compared to the band gap, only one electron can be
freed by one photon. This is the reason for the limited efficiency of the photovoltaic cells.
Photovoltaic effect

• If the band gap is too high, most photons will not cause photovoltaic effect; if it is too low, most photons will have more energy than
necessary to excite electrons across the band gap, and the rest of energy will be wasted.

• The semiconductors commonly used in commercial solar cells have band gaps near the peak of this curve, for example silicon
(1.1eV) or CdTe (1.5eV).

• we can summarize that the photovoltaic effect essentially includes three main steps:
- Absorption of light (photons)
- Generation of charge carriers
- Separation of charge carriers between electrical contacts

• When all these steps occur, the system is able to generate electric current (flow of charge carriers), which can do work.
P-N Junction

• A P-N junction separates the electron and hole carriers in a solar cell to create a voltage and useful
work.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jmlbvr_uOYE
• https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/solar-cell-operation/light-generated-current
Photovoltaic Material Types

1- Monocrystalline Silicon
- The oldest type of solar cells. They are made from pure silicon
crystal.
- Efficiency (typical ~15%; recent developments improved
efficiencies up to 22-24% ).
- Complicated Manufacturing ➔ ➔ High Cost.
- Color: typical black or iridescent blue.
- Last over 25 years. However, their efficiency will gradually
decrease.

2- Polycrystalline (or Multicrystalline) Silicon

- Manufacturing cost less than monocrystalline silicon cells.
Easier Manufacturing.
- less efficient (~12%)
- Last over 25 years.
Photovoltaic Material Types

3- Amorphous Silicon (Thin-film)

6- Polymer and organic PV
- A theoretical limit of about 15% and realized efficiencies are now up
around 6 -10%. - Lightweight (compared to silicon cells).
- Can be made flexible and come in different shapes and therefore can be - Much less efficient (about 1/3 of a typical Si cell efficiency).
used in many applications.
- shorter service life
- Less prone to overheating.

https://www.cleanenergyreviews.info/blog/latest-solar-panel-cell-technology
4- Cadmium Telluride, CdTe (thin-film)
- Quite popular due to the lower cost per kW-hour.
- Best efficiency obtained with CdTe cells is around 16%.

5- Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS)

- Most efficient among the thin-film PV technologies. Around 20%.
- Demonstrate good resistance to heating.
Solar Module Construction
Solar Module Construction

1- Aluminum Frame: plays a critical role by both protecting the edge of the laminate section housing the cells and

providing a solid structure to mount the solar panel in position.

2- Tempered Glass (3-4 mm Thick): The front glass sheet protects the PV cells from the weather and impact from

hail or airborne debris. Designed to resist mechanical loads and extreme temperature changes.

3- EVA Film: is a specially designed polymer highly transparent (plastic) layer used to encapsulate the cells and

hold them in position during manufacture. Preventing moisture and dirt ingress.
Solar Module Construction

4- Solar Cell: convert sunlight directly into DC electrical energy.

5- Back sheet: a moisture barrier and final external skin to provide both mechanical protection and
electrical insulation.

6- Junction Box: a small weatherproof enclosure is needed to securely attach the cables required to
interconnect the panels. It houses the bypass diodes which are needed to prevent back current which
occurs when cells are shaded or dirty.
Standard Test Conditions

• The value of the cell parameters are given by a manufacturer or scientist at standard test conditions (STC) which
is corresponding to 1000 W/m^2 of input solar radiation and 25°C cell operating temperature.

• 25℃

• 1000 W/m^2

• 1.5AM (Air Mass)

I-V characteristic
Standard PV Cell/Module Parameters

• Open circuit voltage (Voc): It is the maximum voltage that a solar cell produce. The value of this
maximum open circuit voltage mainly depends on cell technology and operating temperature.

• Short circuit current (Isc) : It is the maximum current a solar cell can produce. The value of this
maximum current depends on cell technology, cell area, amount of solar radiation falling on cell, angle
of cell, etc

- Many times, people are given current density rather than current. The current density is obtained by
dividing Isc by the area of solar cell (A). The current density is normally referred by symbol, ‘J ’,
therefore, the short circuit current density, Jsc is given by Isc/A.
Standard PV Cell/Module Parameters

• Maximum power point (Pm): It is the maximum power (or peak power) that a solar cell produces under
STC.

• Voltage at maximum power point (Vm): This is the voltage which solar cell will produce when
operating at maximum power point. The Vm will always be lower than Voc.

• Current at maximum power point (Im): This is the current which solar cell will produce when operating
at maximum power point. The Im will always be lower than Isc.
 Standard PV Cell/Module Parameters
• Fill factor (FF): is the ratio of the areas covered by Im-Vm rectangle with the area covered by Isc-Voc rectangle

• Efficiency : The efficiency of a solar cell is defined as the maximum

output power (Pm or Pmax) divided by the input power (Pin).
- Pin for STC is considered as 1000 W/m2.
Solar Cells or Modules in Series

• The total voltage produced is the sum of the individual cell voltages.

• The current through the two cells is the same.

Solar Cells or Modules in Parallel

• Voltage stays the same.

• The total current is the sum of the individual parallel current.

Example
• 36 cells; each cell has 0.5 volt; How much is the total • The top part has 72 cells connected in series; each
voltage? cell has 0.695 volt and the current 5.25 A; it is
connected in parallel with lower part that has the
same specifications; How much is the total voltage
and current?

• Total voltages = 50 Volt

• Total voltages = 18 Volt • Total current = 10.5 A
• Power ??
Example
• 180-Watt Solar Module:
Voltage: 23.26V; Current: 9.03A

• 375-Watt Solar Module:

Voltage: 44.5V; Current: 9.62A

- How much is the total voltage and current if the modules are
connected in series?
Total Voltage = 23.26V + 44.5V = 67.76V
Total Current = 9A (total current in this configuration is equal to
the lowest current.)

• What if they are connected in parallel?

- Lowest voltage is the total, and the sum of the current is the total.
Shading
• PV modules are very sensitive to shading. It could lose up to 90% of its output.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Szkn5BH5D0A
Which Module Connection is better for Shading?

• The principal advantage of parallel wiring is that losses are isolated to the string in which they occur, rather than
affecting the whole array.

• As shown, when partial shading occurs in one of the strings of a parallel array, each of the other three strings will
continue to produce power at full capacity. On the other hand, when partial shading occurs in the series array, it
reduces the power output of the whole array
Shading Causes Hot Spots

• If one of the solar cells gets shaded, then the current

generated by that cell will be lower than the rest of the
solar cells. Since the cells are connected in series, the
shaded solar cell (generating low or no current) will
resist the current flow generated by non-shaded solar
cells generating full current.

• In this case, the shaded solar cell becomes a load for the
other cells, and the power generated by other solar cells
may get dissipated in the shaded solar cells. Due to this,
the shaded solar cell can become very hot, forming hot
spots in the PV module.

• The hot spots sometimes can give rise to breaking of

glass cover in PV module or in a worst case, it can
cause fire.
What is the Solution?

• Bypass diode is used to avoid the destructive effect of hot spots or local heating in series connected cells in PV
modules. A diode, called bypass diode, is connected in parallel with solar cells with opposite polarity to that of a
solar cell.

• In normal condition (no shading), the bypass diode is operated in reverse bias condition, effectively in open
circuit. But if a series connected cell is shaded, reverse bias will appear across it. This reverse bias will act as a
forward bias voltage for bypass diode since it is connected with opposite polarity. In this way, the bypass diode
will carry the current, rather than shaded cell (meaning bypassing the current from shaded cell). By bypassing the
current, the solar cell gets protected by heating and causing permanent damage to the PV module.
Bypass Diode

• Ideally, there should be each diode for each solar cell in the solar PV module, but practically, due to cost reason,
there are few bypass diodes which are connected in PV module. It is recommended that practically, there should
be at least one diode for each series combinations of 10 – 15 cells.
Temperature Effect on Solar Power
Temperature Effect on Solar Power

• An example will be solved in a recorded tutorial class.

Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) Systems
• SPV System categories:

1. Standalone SPV system

(OFF-Grid)

Grid-connected SPV system examples

Standalone SPV system examples

2. Grid-connected SPV system

(ON-Grid)

3. Hybrid SPV system

Hybrid SPV system examples

SPV System Components
• Solar PV Modules, Panels, or Array

• Combiner box

• Charge controller

• Batteries

• Inverter
Combiner Box
• Modules are commonly connected into an electrical string to produce the desired voltage and amperage.
• The resulting wires from each string are routed to the combiner box.
• In this box all the strings are combined into one electrical output that is then fed to the charge controller or
inverter.
Batteries
• A battery stores electrical energy (charge) in the form of chemical energy. When a battery is used, the
chemical energy stored is converted into electrical energy.

• The process of consumption of electrical energy from batteries is technically known as “discharging”.

• Surplus electricity generated by PV panels during the daytime needs to be stored for later use.

• This is best accomplished through the use of a deep charge battery system.

• Deep cycle solar batteries are designed specifically for storing energy generated by photovoltaic PV systems
and then being drawn upon for power on a consistent, daily basis.
Batteries
- Electrolyte fluid, usually acid. This fluid
allows the current to flow between the positive
and the negative connections

- Deep cycle batteries are different from regular

batteries. Regular car batteries produce
a shorter burst of electricity. Deep cycle
batteries produce ongoing, lower yet
consistent, levels of power.

- Deep cycle batteries have thicker metallic

elements. Thicker metal plates allow the
battery to release electricity more consistently.
Batteries
• Deep Cycle Batteries are designed to be repeatedly charged and discharged by as much as 80% of
their full capacity (100% to 20% state of charge) without sustaining any serious damage to the cells
before recharging.
 Batteries

Rechargeable batteries types:

a- Lead Acid
b- Nickel Cadmium (NiCd)
c- Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH)
d- Lithium Ion (Li-ion), and
e- Lithium-Ion Polymer (Li-ion polymer)

- Lead-acid batteries are most commonly used

for residential scale photovoltaic application.
Batteries
Batteries Terminologies:
• Open circuit voltage: It is also called theoretical voltage because this is the maximum possible voltage at
output terminals of battery when circuit is open.
• Nominal terminal voltage or operating voltage: It is actual voltage available at the output terminals of the
battery on which load can operate. The standard battery nominal voltages available are 1.5 V, 3 V, 6 V, 12
V,24 V, 48 V, etc.
• Cut-off voltage: It is a voltage up to which the load can be operated and below which the battery should be
disconnected from the load in order to prevent it from over-discharge.

• The capacity of a battery is the capacity to store the charge in the battery. It is the product of current (in
amperes) it can deliver for a given time (in hours), i.e., Ampere × Hour (Ah).
Batteries

Batteries in series Batteries in parallel

Charge Controller
• A component of a photovoltaic system that controls the flow of current to and from the battery subsystem to
protect batteries from overcharge, over discharge, or other control functions.
• The charge controller may also monitor system operational status.
Charge Controller
• The following two types of charge controllers are mostly used nowadays:
1. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) charge controller or standard charge controller.
2. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) charge controller.

• PWM charge controllers have same nominal voltage across battery bank and PV array.
• MPPT charge controllers can have different voltages across battery bank and PV array and operate at the
maximum power point tracking (MPPT) of the PV panel. MPPT charge controller allows us to have a solar
panel array with a much higher voltage than your battery bank voltage.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7JP4N7t2nec
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bhd4xsJeVzQ
Charge Controller
Inverter
• PV cells, modules, and arrays produce direct current (DC).
• Electric loads that are not connected to the utility grid can use the PV-generated power if they are designed to
operate on direct current.
• Using a charge controller, PV-generated power can charge a bank of storage batteries which can power DC
loads when the sun is not shining on the array.
• Most appliances and equipment found in the home are designed to operate on alternating current (AC) which
is generated by electric utility companies.
• The device that converts DC to AC for use in the home is
called an inverter.
Inverter
• Output waveform: The inverters are supposed to convert a DC power into AC power output. A perfect AC
power output should have sinusoidal behavior, meaning the AC current and AC voltage should be pure sine
wave. In practice, converting DC power into square wave AC power output is much simpler (and low cost) as
compared to converting a DC power into perfect sine wave AC power output which is more expensive. On the
other hand, the AC power with square wave is considered low quality AC power while the AC power with
sine wave is considered high quality AC power. The quality of the AC power affects the performance and life
of the appliances which use this AC power.
• Commercially, inverters are available with the following types of output waveforms:
1. Square wave
2. Sinusoidal
3. Modified sinusoidal
Design SPV Stand-Alone System
• The approximate design of solar PV systems can be done in the following design steps:

• Step 1: Determine the connected load and their energy estimation (watts, and Wh).

• Step 2: Determine the size and choice of electronics components (their power rating, voltage and current at
input and output of the electronics).

• Step 3: Determine the battery size (their number, capacity, voltage and Ah ratings).

• Step 4: Determine the PV module size (their number, power rating, voltage and current ratings).

• Step 5: Determine the size of wires (in mm), fuse (A), Junction box (V, A) sizing, etc. [Not required in this
course]
Step 1
Step 2
 Step 3

• we are considering battery capacity is 150 Ah. Therefore, the total

number of batteries required are: Here that we have taken 12 V
batteries and the input voltage
to the inverter is also 12 V. This
means that we need to connect
all the batteries in parallel.
Step 4

- The maximum daily solar radiation during the year is 5 kWh/m2/day.

• The PV modules rating can be 40 Wp, 60 Wp, 75 Wp, 100 Wp, 120 Wp, 200 Wp, etc. Thus, we can choose a
PV module of 75 Wp for this example
Step 4
• The 75 Wp module will have voltage at maximum power point of about 15 V. In this example, we have
chosen 12 V as system voltage, which is matching the module voltage. It means that we need to series
connection of PV modules to increase the voltage; therefore, all the 8 PV modules must be connected in
parallel to supply the power.
Tracking

• One-axis tracking: The axis of rotation can be either the north–south or east–west line.

• Two-axis tracking: One possibility is to have passive east–west tracking and change the tilt angle by month
manually.
Energy Economics

• Simple Payback
An energy investment's Simple Payback Period is the amount of time it will take to recover the initial investment in
energy savings, dividing initial installed cost by the annual energy cost savings.

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝐼𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡,𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡, 𝑒𝑡𝑐.)

𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 =
𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦 𝑃𝑒𝑟 𝑌𝑒𝑎𝑟
- While Simple Payback is easy to compute, its weakness is that it fails to factor in:
o Time value of money,
o Inflation,
o Project lifetime or operation,
o Maintenance costs.
Energy Economics

• Time Value of Money

A given amount of money is worth more today because it can be invested.

• Cash flows over a given life cycle are “normalized” to a common time:
o Present value

o Annualized value

o Future value
Energy Economics

• Examples/
- A project’s initial cost is 25,000 S.R. and results in a saving of 2,500 S.R. per year. What is the simple payback?

25,000
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 = = 10 𝑦𝑟𝑠
2500

- If you wanted to borrow 10,000 S.R. from the bank and returned it in 5 years with an interest rate of 4%, how much
money would you return in total?

5
Future Value = 10,000 ∗ 1 + 0.04 = 12,167 S. R.