Module-4

Solar Photovoltaic

 History of PV cell

 A French physicist, Becquerel, discovered the PV effect in 1839.

 It was limited to the laboratory until 1954, when Bell Laboratories produced the first silicon cell.
 Application in U.S. space programs for its high power-generating capacity per unit weight.
 Since then, it has been extensively used to convert sunlight into electricity for earth-orbiting satellites.
 Applications ranging from powering remote sites to feeding utility grids around the world.

 Construction and working of PV cell

The physics of the PV cell is very similar to that of the classical diode with a pn junction.

When the junction absorbs light, the energy of absorbed photons is transferred to the electron–holes system of the
material, creating charge carriers that are separated at the junction. The charge carriers are electron–hole pairs.

photon energy should more than band gap energy.

They will not get chance to This is flow of electron. And

recombine and get swept hence flow of current too. PN
(due to charge in depletion diode itself will work as
region). And P side become battery. Known as solar cell.
more positive. N more And can be represented as
negative. This is called current source.
photo voltaic effect.

How it is differ than photo diode??

Photo diode is design for current generation in proportionality of photon energy. Not for power generation. Reverse
biased battery connected to shift generated charges, due to light rays, as shown in diagram.
Figure shown above shows the basic cell construction. Metallic contacts are provided on both sides of the junction to
collect electrical current induced by the impinging photons. A thin conducting mesh of silver fibres on the top
(illuminated) surface collects the current and lets the light through. the front face of the cell has an antireflective coating
to absorb as much light as possible by minimizing the reflection. The mechanical protection is provided by a cover
glass applied with a transparent adhesive.

 EQUIVALENT ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT

The PV circuit is modelled approximately as a constant current source in the electrical analysis of the system.

Practical solar cell Ideal solar cell

The complex physics of the PV cell can be represented by the equivalent electrical circuit shown in Figure.
The circuit parameters are as follows.

 The current I at the output terminals

 light-generated current IL,
 diode current Id and
 the shunt-leakage current Ish.
 Rsh – internal resistance of current source.
 The series resistance Rs represents the internal resistance to the current flow, and depends on the pn junction
depth, impurities, and contact resistance.

Important:

 In an ideal PV cell, Rs = 0 (no series loss), and Rsh = ∞ (no leakage to ground).
 In a typical high-quality 1 in.2 silicon cell, Rs varies from 0.05 to 0.10 Ω and Rsh from 200 to 300 Ω.
 The PV conversion efficiency is sensitive to small variations in Rs, but is insensitive to variations in Rsh.
 A small increase in Rs can decrease the PV output significantly.

In the equivalent circuit, the current delivered to the external load I= IL - Id -Ish.

The open-circuit voltage Voc of the cell is obtained when the load current is zero, i.e., when I = 0, and is given by the
following:

With consideration of normal diode characteristic:

For PV cell , it can be written as:

Where,
ID = the saturation current of the diode
Q = electron charge = 1.6C
A = curve-fitting constant
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38*10-23 J/K
T = temperature on absolute scale K

The load current is therefore given by the expression:

The last term is the leakage current to the ground. In practical cells, it is negligible compared to IL and ID and is
generally ignored.

From above , it can be conclude that the two most important parameters widely used for describing cell electrical
performance are the open-circuit voltage Voc and the short-circuit current Isc under full illumination.

Sample name plate of solar module given below for better understanding.

 I-V AND P-V CURVES of solar cell

The electrical characteristic of the PV cell is generally represented by the current vs. voltage (I-V) curve. Figure
below shows the I-V characteristic of a PV module under two conditions, in sunlight and in the dark.
 knee point
When reverse biased
voltage is applied and
reached beyond the
breakdown voltage, just like
diode.

 In the left-shaded region, the cell works as a constant current source, generating a voltage to match with the
load resistance.
 In the shaded region on the right, the current drops rapidly with a small rise in the voltage. In this region, the
cell works like a constant voltage source with an internal resistance.
 Somewhere in the middle of the two shaded regions, the curve has a knee point.
 In the dark, the current is zero for any voltage up to the breakdown voltage, which is the same as in the
illuminated condition.
 The PV circuit is modelled approximately as a constant current source in the electrical analysis of the system.
(Check equivalent circuit.)
The power output of the panel is the product of the voltage and current outputs. In below Figure, the power is plotted
against the voltage.

VI curve PV curve
Note that the cell produces no power at zero voltage or zero current, and produces the maximum power at the voltage
corresponding to the knee point of the I-V curve. This is why the PV power circuit is always designed to operate close
to the knee point with slight margin.

I-V characteristic of a typical 22-W panel at two solar illumination intensities, 1000 W/m and 500 W/m .
2 2

 Photo conversion efficiency vs. solar radiation (practically constant over a wide range of radiation).
Solar cells are also divided into three main categories called generations.

The first generation include wafer based mono and multi crystalline solar cells. At present, solar cells of first generating
are dominating the market.

The second-generation solar cells include thin film cells such as amorphous silicon, CIGS and Cadmium Telluride, etc.
These solar cells are available commercially.

The third generation solar cells operate on entirely different principle. They include dye sensitized, organic and
quantum dot solar cells, etc. The third generation solar cells are under development stage.

 Main Types of solar cell

1. Mono crystalline si cell: or (SC-Si cell-Single continue silicon cell): These cells are made from pure
monocrystalline silicon. In these cells, the silicon has a single continuous crystal lattice structure with almost
no defects or impurities. Hence it is also known as single-crystal silicon.

 The main advantage of monocrystalline cells is their high efficiency, which is typically around 16 to
23%. The sell can convert solar radiation 0f 1000 watt/meter2 into 180 watt(around) with cell surface
of 1 meter2. Life span of this cell is 25-30 years.
 Disadvantage: As it is made from single continuous lattice , it involves significant silicon wastage.
 2. Multi- Crystelline Si cell or Poly crystalline Si cell: mc-Si solar cells are much cheaper and easier to
manufacture as they do not require pure crystalline silicon for their wafers. The liquid silicon is used as raw
material and MC-Si was obtained by solidification process.
 The efficiency is about 13 to 16% due to defects at the border of cell during solidification and low
impurity of silicon material.
 Life span of this cell is 20-25 years..

3. Thin Film Si cell: Thin-film solar cells are made by depositing a thin layer of semiconductor on a supporting
material (substrates) such as glass, stainless steel or polyimide through a process called chemical vapour
deposition.

 Efficiency is around 10 to 13% and life span is in range of 15 to 20 years.

 Comparison: Monocrystalline Vs Polycrystalline panels

Already discussed: Solar module, Solar panel, solar PV array.- Recall it.

 Cell size:
 Standards on the size of bulk silicon solar cells can be divided into
four groups:
(a) 100 mm (4 inch) diameter, round single crystalline
(b) 100 cm2 off square single crystalline
(c) 100 mm × 100 mm (~ 4 inch × 4 inch) square multicrystalline
(d) 125 mm × 125 mm (~ 5 inch × 5 inch) square multicrystalline
  A PV system feeds a dc motor to produce 1 hp power at the shaft. The motor efficiency is 85%. Each module
has 36 multicrystalline silicon solar cells arranged in 9 × 4 matrix. The cell size is 125mm × 125mm and cell
efficiency is 12%. Calculate the number of modules required in the PV array. Assume global radiation incident
normally to the panel as 1 kW/m2.

 Solution
Motor output power = 1 hp = 746 W
Electrical power required by the motor = 746/0.85 = 877.65 W
Cell area in one module = 9 × 4 × 125 × 125 × 10–6 = 0.5625 m2
Let n number of modules is required
Solar radiation incident on panel = 1 kW/m2 = 1000 W/m2
Cell efficiency = 0.12
Output of solar array = 1000 × 0.5625 × n × 0.12 = 67.5 × n
The output of solar array is the input to the motor;
67.5 × n = 877.65
n = 13
Therefore 13 modules are required in the panel.

 A typical panel: Series-parallel connection of modules

 MAXIMISING THE SOLAR PV OUTPUT : By two way:

1. Mechanically tracking the sun and always orienting the panel in such a direction as to receive
maximum solar radiation under changing positions of the sun.
2. Electrically tracking the operating point : The operating point of an electrical system is determined by
the intersection of source characteristics (source line) and load characteristics (load line). The operation
for a solar PV system connected to a resistive load is shown in Fig.

Source and Load characteristic:

R1,R2,R3- load resistance

Q1,Q2,Q3 – operating point.
V-I curve- source line
V vs I linear graph- Load line

Maximum power is available from the PV system for load resistance of R2. Such load matching is required for
extracting maximum power from PV system.

 MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING

Definition: When a solar PV system is deployed for practical applications, the I-V characteristic keeps on changing
with insolation and temperature. In order to receive maximum power the load must adjust itself accordingly to track the
maximum power point. This is called maximum power point tracking.
Concept: The I-V characteristics of PV system, along with some common loads, are shown in Fig. An ideal load is one
that tracks the maximum power point.

If the operating point departs significantly from maximum power point, it may be desirable to interpose an electronic
maximum power point tracker (MPPT) between PV system and load.

Block diagram of MPPT:

Main element is Buck-boost converter. Boost converter is power converter which DC input voltage is less than DC
output voltage. That means PV input voltage is less than the battery voltage in system. It takes DC input from panel
output and provide Vout for load as shown. The output voltage of the buck-boost converter is given by:
D is duty cycle for MOSFET, expressed as
fraction (0 < D < 1).

The major principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV module by making them operate at
the most efficient voltage (maximum power point).

MPPT checks output of PV module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes what is the best power that PV module
can produce to charge the battery and converts it to the best voltage to get maximum current into battery. It can also
supply power to a DC load, which is connected directly to the battery.

Just like boost converter, Buck converter is also used which is power converter, which DC input voltage is greater than
DC output voltage. That means PV input voltage is greater than the battery voltage in system.

Operation:

Strategy used by MPPT for operation is By Monitoring Power Output. it is clear that the slope, dP/dV is zero at
maximum power point.
This property is utilized to track the maximum power point. Voltage is adjusted and power output is sensed. The
operating voltage is increased as long as dP/dV is positive. That is, voltage is increased as long as we get increased
output. If dP/dV is sensed negative, the operating voltage is decreased.

Example: A PV source having IV characteristics as shown in Fig. 6.38 is supplying power to a load whose load line
intersects the characteristics at (10 V, 8 A). Determine the additional power gained if an MPPT is interposed between
the source and the load. If the cost of the MPPT is Rs. 4000.00, for how long the system needs to operate in order to
recover the cost of MPPT. The cost of electricity may be assumed as Rs 7.00 per kWh. The efficiency of MPPT may be
assumed as 95%.

Solution
Power produced without MPPT = 10 × 8 = 80 W
Maximum power production capability of the PV module = 25 × 5 = 125 W
As the efficiency of the MPPT is 95%, actual power produced with MPPT = 125 ×0.95 = 118.75 W
Surplus power produced by use of MPPT = 118.75 – 80 = 38.75 W
Surplus energy produce in t hours = 38.75 × t / 1000 = 0.03875 × t kWh
Cost of surplus energy = 7 × 0.03875 × t = 0.27125× t
Cost of MPPT = Rs 4000
Time, t (in hours) required to recover the cost of MPPT = 4000/ 0.27125 = 14746.54 hours

 SOLAR PV SYSTEMS – Classification

a) Stand Alone or Off Grid- Various types of configuration as follow:

1. A dc load is directly connected to PV panel 2. Regulated system with DC load

This is the simplest possible configuration. Power A DC-DC converter is inserted between panel
is available only during sunshine hours and no and load. The converter may be controlled using
arrangement is made for power storage. Such type MPPT
of arrangement may be used for supplying raw dc algorithm to extract maximum power from the
load such as minor irrigation. PV panel.
 3. Regulated system with DC load and
battery
Config. 3 is used for loads such as lighting for
which battery storage is required. For safe charging
and discharging operation a charge controller is
also required. The use of battery ensures
uninterrupted and smooth power availability, b’z
Battery store excess power.

4. Regulated system with battery and

AC/DC load
Config. 4 also includes ac loads for which an
inverter is also required. Since most of the
commonly available loads are ac type, this
configuration is suitable for most domestic and
commercial applications.

b) Grid-Interactive or Grid Tied: Typical arrangment of Grid tied (On grid) PV system is as follow.

In this arrangment The grid serves as infinite source or sink of energy. This system is connected to the utility
grid with two-way metering system. It (PV system)may be a small rooftop system owned and operated by the
house owner or a relatively bigger (rack mounted) system meant for the whole village or a community. It meets
daytime requirements of the house owner without any battery backup and surplus power is fed to the grid (Grid
behave as sink). During peak hours and during nights the energy shortage may be met from grid (Grid behave as
source).

Grid-connected PV systems usually employ two stages. First is dc-dc converter with MPPT. And second stage
inverse DC power to AC power with appropriate condition that can be fed into grid.

c) Hybrid PV System :

Sometimes it is not economical or practical to provide all energy from PV system. In such cases, it may be more
economical to provide some of the system energy needs by another means, such as diesel/gasoline generator or
any other non-conventional source like wind or fuel cell. Such a system is called hybrid system.
 Application of solar pv system in Water Pumping

Pumping of water for the purpose of drinking or for minor irrigation, during sunshine hours, is very successful
application of stand-alone PV system without storage.this is because water demand increases during dry days
when enough sunshine is available. And there would be less need of water during rainy season when the
availability of solar energy is also low.

SPV water pumping systems have been successfully used in many parts of the world in the range of few
hundred W to 5 kW. Three types of motors have generally been used: (i) permanent magnet dc motor (in low
capacity pumping systems), (ii) brush-less dc motors and (iii) variable voltage and variable frequency ac
motors, with appropriate electronic control and conversion system.

 Application of solar pv system in street lighting

Next to water pumping, lighting is the second most important and extensive application of stand-alone solar PV
system. As lighting is required when sun is not available battery storage is essential. Energy efficient compact
fluorescent lamps (CFL) or low-pressure sodium vapour lamps (LPSVL) are used for lighting. Pole mounted out-
door lighting, shown in Fig. below, is designed to operate for 3–6 hours in an evening.

Note: Charge controllers sense the SoC (state of charge) of the battery and prevent
battery from overcharge or deep discharge by disconnecting the battery from source
(solar panel) or load
 Converters control:
There are three basic types of dc-dc converter circuits, termed as buck, boost and buck-boost. In all of these
circuits, a power device is used as a switch. This device earlier used was a thyristor, which is turned on by a
pulse fed at its gate . Later, GTO’s came into the market which turn on and turn-off times are lower than those
of thyristors. But now a days, MOSFETs are used as a switching device in low voltage and high current
applications. It may be noted that, as the turn-on and turn-off time of MOSFETs are lower as compared to
other switching devices.
 Buck Converters (dc-dc):
A buck converter (dc-dc) is shown in Fig. As a switch MOSFET is generally used.

The load is inductive (R-L) one and due to the load inductance, the load current must be allowed a path,
which is provided by the diode; otherwise, i.e., in the absence of the above diode, the high induced emf of the
inductance, as the load current tends to decrease, may cause damage to the switching device.

The average value of the output voltage is,

The duty ratio is K= (Ton/Ton+Toff )= [Ton/T ], and value of K is practically less than one and greater than
zero.

It may be noted that the output voltage is lower than the input voltage (Hence known as buck converter). Also,
the average output voltage increases, as the duty ratio is increased. So, a variable dc output voltage is obtained
from a constant dc input voltage.

 Boost Converters (dc-dc):

A boost converter (dc-dc) is shown in Fig. Also, a diode is used in series with the load. The load is of the same
type as given earlier. An inductance, L is assumed in series with the input supply.
Firstly, the switch, S (i.e., the device) is put ON (or turned ON) during the period, The output voltage is zero
(Vo=0 ), The current from the source (Is ) flows in the inductance L. The value of current increases linearly
with time in this interval, with di/dt positive.

As the current through L increases, the polarity of the induced emf is taken as say, positive, the left hand side of
L being +ve. The equation for the circuit is,

The switch, S is put OFF during the Toff period, The current (is=io) decreases linearly in the time interval ,
Toff. the induced emf reverses, the left hand side of L being -ve. So, the induced emf (taken as –ve in the
equation given later) is added with the supply voltage, and hence Vo>Vs.

In this case, the output voltage is higher than the input voltage, as contrasted with the previous case of buck
converter (dc-dc). So, this is called boost converter (dc-dc).

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