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Biodiversity CH 5 and 18

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Biodiversity CH 5 and 18

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arkinflorida9
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Chapter 5

Evolution of Biodiversity
Chapter Overview
Questions
•How do scientists account for the development of
life on earth?
•What is biological evolution by natural selection,
and how can it account for the current diversity of
organisms on the earth?
•How can geologic processes, climate change
and catastrophes affect biological evolution?
•What is an ecological niche, and how does it help
a population adapt to changing the environmental
conditions?
Chapter Overview
Questions
•How do extinction of species and formation of new
species affect biodiversity?
•What is the future of evolution, and what role
should humans play in this future?
•How did we become such a powerful species in a
short time?
Chapter Overview
Questions
•How have human activities affected the earth’s
biodiversity?
•How should forest resources be used, managed,
and sustained globally and in the United States?
•How serious is tropical deforestation, and how can
we help sustain tropical forests?
•How should rangeland resources be used,
managed, and sustained?
Chapter Overview
Questions
•What problems do parks face, and how should we
manage them?
•How should we establish, design, protect, and
manage terrestrial nature reserves?
•What is wilderness, and why is it important?
•What is ecological restoration, and why is it
important?
•What can we do to help sustain the earth’s
terrestrial biodiversity?
Chapter Overview
Questions
•How do biologists estimate extinction rates, and how
do human activities affect these rates?
•Why should we care about protecting wild species?
•Which human activities endanger wildlife?
•How can we help prevent premature extinction of
species?
•What is reconciliation ecology, and how can it help
prevent premature extinction of species?
Earth is home to a tremendous
diversity of species

• Ecosystem diversity- the variety of


ecosystems within a given region.
• Species diversity- the variety of species in
a given ecosystem.
• Genetic diversity- the variety of genes
within a given species.
Importance of Diversity
• Stability- stable environment
• Genetic reserves- genetic diversity
• Medicinal- medicines
• Agricultural- food
• Industrial- building homes; things we use
• Scientific- experimental; new technology
• Aesthetic- beautiful
• Ethical- what should we do regarding the
environment
• Religious- religious beliefs regarding environment
• Species richness- the number of species in a
given area.
• Species evenness- the measure of whether a
particular ecosystem is numerically
dominated by one species or are all
represented by similar numbers of
individuals.
Evolution is the mechanism
underlying biodiversity

• Evolution- a change in the genetic


composition of a population over time.
• Microevolution- evolution below the
species level.
• Macroevolution- Evolution which gives
rise to new species or new genera, family,
class or phyla.
Creating Genetic Diversity

• Genes- physical locations on chromosomes


within each cell of an organism.
• Genotype- the complete set of genes in an
individual.
• Mutation- a random change in the
structure or number of DNA molecules in
a cell that can be inherited by offspring
• Phenotype- the actual set of traits
expressed in an individual.
Hybridization and Gene Swapping: other
Ways to Exchange Genes
• New species can arise through
hybridization.
• Occurs when individuals to two distinct
species crossbreed to produce an fertile
offspring.
• Some species (mostly microorganisms)
can exchange genes without sexual
reproduction.
• Horizontal gene transfer
ORIGINS OF LIFE
• 1 billion years of chemical change to
form the first cells, followed by about 3.7
billion years of biological change.

Figure 4-2
Biological
Evolution
• This has led
to the variety
of species
we find on
the earth
today.

Figure 4-2
Modern humans (Homo
sapiens sapiens) appear
about 2 seconds before
midnight
Recorded human
history begins about 1/4
second before midnight
Age of
Age of mammals Origin of life
reptiles
Insects (3.6-3.8 billion
and
amphibian years ago)
s invade
the land
Plants
begin
invading
land

First fossil
record of
animals

Evolution and
expansion of life
How Do We Know Which
Organisms Lived in the
Past?
• Our knowledge
about past life
comes from
fossils, chemical
analysis, cores
drilled out of
buried ice, and
DNA analysis.
Figure 4-4
Evolution by artificial and natural
selection

• Evolution by artificial selection- when humans


determine which individuals breed.
• Evolution by natural selection- the
environment determines which individuals
are most likely to survive and reproduce.
Limits on Adaptation through
Natural Selection
• A population’s ability to adapt to new
environmental conditions through natural
selection is limited by its gene pool and
how fast it can reproduce.
• Humans have a relatively slow
generation time (decades) and output (#
of young) versus some other species.
Common Myths about Evolution
through Natural Selection

• Evolution through natural selection is


about the most descendants.
• Organisms do not develop certain traits
because they need them.
• There is no such thing as genetic
perfection.
Darwin’s theory of evolution by
natural selection
• Individuals produce an excess of offspring.
• Not all offspring can survive.
• Individuals differ in their traits.
• Differences in traits can be passed on from
parents to offspring.
• Differences in traits are associated with
differences in the ability to survive and
reproduce.
Evolution by Random Processes
• Mutation- occur randomly and can add to the
genetic variation of a population.
• Genetic drift- change in the genetic composition
of a population over time as a result of random
mating.
• Bottleneck effect- a reduction in the genetic
diversity of a population caused by a reduction
in its size.
• Founder effect- a change in a population
descended from a small number of colonizing
individuals.
GEOLOGIC PROCESSES, CLIMATE
CHANGE, CATASTROPHES, AND
EVOLUTION
• The movement of solid (tectonic) plates
making up the earth’s surface, volcanic
eruptions, and earthquakes can wipe out
existing species and help form new ones.
• The locations of continents and oceanic
basins influence climate.
• The movement of continents have allowed
species to move.
225 million years ago 135 million years ago

65 million years ago Present

Fig. 4-5, p. 88
Climate Change and
Natural Selection
• Changes in climate throughout the
earth’s history have shifted where plants
and animals can live.

Figure 4-6
Catastrophes and
Natural Selection
• Asteroids and meteorites hitting the earth
and upheavals of the earth from geologic
processes have wiped out large numbers
of species and created evolutionary
opportunities by natural selection of new
species.
SPECIATION, EXTINCTION, AND
BIODIVERSITY

• Speciation: A new species can arise


when member of a population become
isolated for a long period of time.
• Genetic makeup changes, preventing
them from producing fertile offspring
with the original population if reunited.
Geographic Isolation

• …can lead to reproductive isolation,


divergence of gene pools and speciation.
Figure 4-10
Speciation and extinction
determine biodiversity
• Allopatric speciation- when new species are
created by geographic or reproductive
isolation.
• Sympatric speciation- the evolution of one
species into two species in the absence of
geographic isolation, usually through the
process of polyploidy, an increase in the
number of sets of chromosomes.
The pace of evolution
Evolution shapes ecological niches
and determines species distributions

• Range of tolerance- all species have an optimal


environment in which it performs well. The limit
to the abiotic conditions they can tolerate is
known as the range of tolerance.
• Fundamental niche- the ideal conditions for a
species.
Niches

• Realized niche- the range of abiotic and biotic


conditions under which a species lives. This
determines the species distribution, or areas of the
world where it lives.
• Niche generalist- species that live under a wide
range of conditions.
• Niche specialist- species that live only in specific
habitats.
The Fossil Record

• Fossils- remains of organisms that have


been preserved in rock. Much of what
we know about evolution comes from
the fossil record.
HUMAN IMPACTS ON
TERRESTRIAL BIODIVERSITY

• We have
depleted and
degraded some
of the earth’s
biodiversity and
these threats are
expected to
increase.
Figure 10-2
Why Should We Care About
Biodiversity?
• Use Value: For the
usefulness in terms
of economic and
ecological services.
• Nonuse Value:
existence,
aesthetics, bequest
for future
generations.
Figure 10-3
Natural Capital
Forests
Ecological Economic
Services Services
Support energy flow
and chemical Fuelwood
cycling
Lumber
Reduce soil erosion
Pulp to make paper
Absorb and release
water Mining

Purify water and air Livestock grazing

Influence local and Recreation


regional climate
Jobs
Store atmospheric
carbon

Provide numerous
wildlife habitats Fig. 10-4, p. 193
Types of Forests
• Old-growth forest:
uncut or regenerated
forest that has not been
seriously disturbed for
several hundred years.
• 22% of world’s forest.
• Hosts many species
with specialized
niches.
Figure 10-5
Types of Forests

• Second-growth forest: a stand of trees


resulting from natural secondary
succession.
• Tree plantation: planted stands of a
particular tree species. Figure 10-6
Harvesting Trees

• Building roads into previously


inaccessible forests paves the way for
fragmentation, destruction, and
degradation.

Figure 10-8
Harvesting
Trees
• Trees can be harvested
individually from diverse
forests (selective
cutting), an entire forest
can be cut down (clear
cutting), or portions of
the forest is harvested
(e.g. strip cutting).

Figure 10-9
Harvesting Trees

Effects of clear-cutting in
the state of Washington,
U.S.
Types and Effects of Forest Fires

• Depending on their intensity, fires can benefit


or harm forests.
• Burn away flammable ground material.
• Release valuable mineral nutrients.
Figure 10-13
Solutions:
Controversy Over Fire
Management
• To reduce fire damage:
• Set controlled surface fires.
• Allow fires to burn on public lands if
they don’t threaten life and property.
• Clear small areas around property
subject to fire.
Solutions:
Controversy Over Fire Management
• In 2003, U.S. Congress passed the Healthy
Forest Restoration Act:
• Allows timber companies to cut medium and
large trees in 71% of the national forests.
• In return, must clear away smaller, more fire-
prone trees and underbrush.
• Some forest scientists believe this could
increase severe fires by removing fire resistant
trees and leaving highly flammable slash.
Controversy over Logging in
U.S. National Forests
• There has been an
ongoing debate over
whether U.S. national
forests should be
primarily for:
• Timber.
• Ecological services.
• Recreation.
• Mix of these uses.
Figure 10-14
CASE STUDY: TROPICAL
DEFORESTATION

• Large areas of ecologically and


economically important tropical forests
are being cleared and degraded at a
fast rate.
Figure 10-16
Solutions:
Reducing Demand for Harvest Trees

• Tree harvesting can


be reduced by
wasting less wood
and making paper
and charcoal fuel
from fibers that do
not come from trees.
• Kenaf is a
promising plant for
paper production.
Figure 10-15
American Forests in a Globalized
Economy
• Timber from tree plantations in temperate and
tropical countries is decreasing the need for
timber production in the U.S.
• This could help preserve the biodiversity in
the U.S. by decreasing pressure to clear-cut
old-growth and second-growth forests.
• This may lead to private land owners to sell
less profitable land to developers.
• Forest management policy will play a key
role.
CASE STUDY: TROPICAL
DEFORESTATION
• At least half of the
world’s terrestrial
plant and animal
species live in
tropical rain forests.
• Large areas of
tropical forest are
burned to make way
for cattle ranches
and crops.
Figure 10-17
Why Should We Care about the Loss of
Tropical Forests?

• About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by the


National Cancer Institute as sources of cancer-
fighting chemicals come from tropical forests.
Figure 10-18
Rauvolfia
Rauvolfia sepentina,
Southeast Asia
Tranquilizer, high
blood pressure
medication Fig. 10-18a, p. 205
Foxglove
Digitalis purpurea,
Europe
Digitalis for heart failure Fig. 10-18b, p. 205
Pacific yew
Taxus brevifolia,
Pacific Northwest
Ovarian cancer
Cinchona
Cinchona ledogeriana,
South America
Quinine for malaria treatment Fig. 10-18d, p. 205
Rosy periwinkle
Cathranthus roseus,
Madagascar
Hodgkin's disease,
lymphocytic leukemia Fig. 10-18e, p. 205
Neem tree
Azadirachta indica,
India
Treatment of many
diseases, insecticide,
spermicide Fig. 10-18f, p. 205
Solutions
Sustaining Tropical Forests

Prevention Restoration

Protect most diverse and endangered


areas Reforestation

Educate settlers about sustainable


agriculture and forestry

Phase out subsidies that encourage


unsustainable forest use

Add subsidies that encourage Rehabilitation of degraded


sustainable forest use areas

Protect forests with debt-for-nature


swaps and conservation easements

Certify sustainably grown timber

Reduce illegal cutting

Reduce poverty Concentrate farming and


ranching on already-cleared
Slow population growth areas
Kenya’s Green Belt Movement:
Individuals Matter
• Wangari Maathai founded
the Green Belt
Movement.
• The main goal is to
organize poor women to
plant (for fuelwood) and
protect millions of trees.
• In 2004, awarded Nobel
peace prize.
Figure 10-10A
MANAGING AND SUSTAINING
GRASSLANDS
• Almost half of the world’s livestock graze
on natural grasslands (rangelands) and
managed grasslands (pastures).
• We can sustain rangeland productivity by
controlling the number and distribution of
livestock and by restoring degraded
rangeland.
MANAGING AND SUSTAINING
GRASSLANDS

• Overgrazing
(left) occurs
when too many
animals graze
for too long and
exceed carrying
capacity of a
grassland area.

Figure 10-21
MANAGING AND SUSTAINING
GRASSLANDS

• Example of restored area along the San


Pedro River in Arizona after 10 years of
banning grazing and off-road vehicles.
Figure 10-22
Case Study: Grazing and Urban
Development in the American West
• Ranchers, ecologists, and
environmentalists are joining together to
preserve the grasslands on cattle
ranches.
• Paying ranchers conservation
easements (barring future owners from
development).
• Pressuring government to zone the
land to prevent development of
ecologically sensitive areas.
NATIONAL PARKS
• Countries have established more than
1,100 national parks, but most are
threatened by human activities.
• Local people invade park for wood,
cropland, and other natural resources.
• Loggers, miners, and wildlife poachers
also deplete natural resources.
• Many are too small to sustain large-
animal species.
• Many suffer from invasive species.
Case Study: Stresses on U.S.
National Parks
• Overused due to
popularity.
• Inholdings
(private
ownership) within
parks threaten
natural
resources.
• Air pollution.
Figure 10-23
Solutions
National Parks

• Integrate plans for managing parks and nearby federal


lands
• Add new parkland near threatened parks
• Buy private land inside parks
• Locate visitor parking outside parks and use shuttle
buses for entering and touring heavily used parks
• Increase funds for park maintenance and repairs
• Survey wildlife in parks
• Raise entry fees for visitors and use funds for park
management and maintenance
• Limit the number of visitors to crowded park areas
• Increase the number and pay of park rangers
• Encourage volunteers to give visitor lectures and tours
• Seek private donations for park maintenance and repairs
NATURE RESERVES
• Ecologists call for protecting more land to
help sustain biodiversity, but powerful
economic and political interests oppose
doing this.
• Currently 12% of earth’s land area is
protected.
• Only 5% is strictly protected from harmful
human activities.
• Conservation biologists call for full
protection of at least 20% of earth’s land
area representing multiple examples of
all biomes.
NATURE RESERVES
• Large and medium-sized reserves with
buffer zones help protect biodiversity and
can be connected by corridors.

• Costa Rica has


consolidated its parks
and reserves into 8
mega-reserves
designed to sustain
80% if its biodiversity.
Figure 10-
• 34 hotspots identified by ecologists as important
and endangered centers of biodiversity.
Figure 10-26
Case Study:
The U.S. Endangered Species Act

• Biodiversity hotspots in relation to the largest


concentrations of rare and potentially
endangered species in the U.S. Figure 11-18
Extinction: Lights Out

• Extinction
occurs when
the population
cannot adapt
to changing
environmental
The golden toad of Costa conditions.
Rica’s Monteverde cloud forest
has become extinct because of
changes in climate.
Figure 4-11
Species and families
Era Period Millions of Bar width represents relative experiencing
years ago number of living species
Cenozoic mass extinction
Quaternary Today Extinction Current extinction crisis caused
by human activities. Many species
Tertiary are expected to become extinct
Extinction within the next 50–100 years.
65
Cretaceous: up to 80% of ruling
Cretaceous reptiles (dinosaurs); many marine
Mesozoic

species including many


foraminiferans and mollusks.
Jurassic Extinction Triassic: 35% of animal families,
180 including many reptiles and marine
Triassic mollusks.

250 Extinction Permian: 90% of animal families,


including over 95% of marine
Permian
species; many trees, amphibians,
most bryozoans and brachiopods,
Carboniferous
Extinction all trilobites.
345
Devonian: 30% of animal
Paleozoic

families, including agnathan and


Devonian
placoderm fishes and many
trilobites.
Silurian

Ordovician Extinction
500 Ordovician: 50% of animal
Cambrian families, including many
trilobites.
Fig. 4-12, p. 93
Effects of Humans on
Biodiversity

• The scientific consensus is that human activities


are decreasing the earth’s biodiversity.
Figure 4-13
Endangered Species
History of Extinctions
• Extinctions have existed
long before humans had
an influence
However…
•The current extinction crisis is the first
to be caused by a single species- US!

This is happening faster than ever; a


few decades versus thousands to
millions of years.

Humans are eliminating not only the


species but, the environment. Ex.
Tropical rainforest
Categories of
Endangerment
 Extinct- no known species exist today
 Threatened- species with a high risk of
extinction in the future
 Near-threatened- species that are likely to
become threatened in the future
 Least concern- species are widespread
and abundant
SPECIES EXTINCTION
• Species can become extinct:
• Locally: A species is no longer found
in an area it once inhabited but is still
found elsewhere in the world.
• Ecologically: Occurs when so few
members of a species are left they no
longer play its ecological role.
• Globally (biologically): Species is no
longer found on the earth.
Global Extinction

• Some animals have become prematurely


extinct because of human activities.

Figure 11-2
Endangered and Threatened Species:
Ecological Smoke Alarms

• Endangered species: so few individual


survivors that it could soon become extinct.
• Threatened species: still abundant in its natural
range but is likely to become endangered in the
near future. Figure 11-3
Fig. 11-3, p. 224
The Five Global Mass Extinctions

• Mass extinction- when large numbers of


species went extinct over a relatively
short period of time.
The Sixth Mass Extinction
• Scientists feel that we are in our sixth
mass extinction, occurring in the last two
decades.
• Estimates of extinction rates vary widely,
from 2 % to 25% by 2020.
• We are currently losing approximately
50,000 species per year.
• In contrast to previous mass extinctions,
scientists agree that this one is caused by
humans.
ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION

• Restoration: trying to return to a condition


as similar as possible to original state.
• Rehabilitation: attempting to turn a
degraded ecosystem back to being
functional.
• Replacement: replacing a degraded
ecosystem with another type of ecosystem.
• Creating artificial ecosystems: such as
artificial wetlands for flood reduction and
sewage treatment.
ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
• Five basic science-based principles for
ecological restoration:
• Identify cause.
• Stop abuse by eliminating or sharply
reducing factors.
• Reintroduce species if necessary.
• Protect area form further degradation.
• Use adaptive management to monitor
efforts, assess successes, and modify
strategies.
Will Restoration Encourage Further
Destruction?
• There is some concern that ecological
restoration could promote further
environmental destruction and
degradation.
• Suggesting that any ecological harm
can be undone.
• Preventing ecosystem damage is far
cheaper than ecological restoration.
Mitigation Costs
• The costs of offsetting damages. For
example, how much would it cost to
protect a forest from cutting, move an
endangered species to a new habitat, or
restore a statue damaged by air
pollution?
Restoration
• Research and scientific study devoted
to restoring, repairing, and
reconstructing damaged ecosystems.
Preservation
• Setting aside or protecting undisturbed
natural areas from harmful human
activities.
Remediation
• Repairing an ecosystem that has been
destroyed.
WHAT CAN WE DO?
• Eight priorities for protecting biodiversity:
• Take immediate action to preserve
world’s biological hot spots.
• Keep intact remaining old growth.
• Complete mapping of world’s
biodiversity for inventory and decision
making.
• Determine world’s marine hot spots.
• Concentrate on protecting and
restoring lake and river systems (most
threatened ecosystems).
WHAT CAN WE DO?
• Ensure that the full range of the earths
ecosystems are included in global
conservation strategy.
• Make conservation profitable.
• Initiate ecological restoration products
to heal some of the damage done and
increase share of earth’s land and
water allotted to the rest of nature.
SPECIES
EXTINCTION

• Some species
have
characteristics
that make
them
vulnerable to
ecological and
biological
extinction.
Figure 11-4
SPECIES
EXTINCTION
• Scientists use measurements and
models to estimate extinction rates.
• The International Union for the
Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (IUCN) publishes an annual
Red List, listing the world’s threatened
species.
• The 2004 Red List contains 15,589
species at risk for extinction.
Figure 11-5
SPECIES EXTINCTION

• Percentage of various species types


threatened with premature extinction
from human activities.
Figure 11-5
HABITAT LOSS, DEGRADATION,
AND FRAGMENTATION
 H- Habitat Loss
 I- Invasive Species
 P- Pollution
 P-Population Growth
 C- Climate Change
 O- Overharvested
Causes of Endangerment

• Habitat Loss- people moving in


(the number one reason for
endangerment!)
• Biotic pollution- polluted air, water,
etc
• Over-Hunting
• Commercial Harvest- sold for profit
Location Where Endangerment is a
Problem:

• United States- California, Hawaii, Texas


and Southeastern states like Florida
• Worldwide- Places that don’t control
poaching and starving countries that
need the food. Ex. Africa, Asia, Middle
East.
Methods used to help
Endangered Species:

Conservation Biology-
Multidisciplinary science that
deals with the crisis of diversity
and how to maintain the earth’s
ecosystems.
In situ vs. ex situ:
In Situ:
• Leaving the animal where it lives
but protecting it.
• Ex. Elephants; make laws that
prevent poaching and have
people to enforce it.
• Ex. Marine turtles are protected-
escape nets must be used on all
fishing nets so the turtles can get
out and not drown.
Ex Situ:
• Taking the animal out of its habitat & protecting it.
• Ex. Zoo’s
• 2 types:
• egg pulling -collecting wild eggs laid by
critically endangered bird species and
then hatching them in zoos or research
centers
• captive breeding, wild individuals of a
critically endangered species are captured
for breeding in captivity, with the aim of
reintroducing the offspring into the wild.
Indian Tiger

Range 100 years ago


Range today
(about 2,300 left)
Fig. 11-8a, p. 230
Black Rhino

Range in 1700
Range today
(about 3,600 left)
Fig. 11-8b, p. 230
African Elephant

Probable range 1600


Range today
Fig. 11-8c, p. 230
Asian or Indian Elephant

Former range
Range today
(34,000–54,000 left)
Fig. 11-8d, p. 230
INVASIVE SPECIES
 Alien species (exotic
species)- species that
live outside their
historical range.
 Invasive species-
when alien species
spread rapidly
across large areas.
Kudzu vine was introduced
in the southeastern U.S. to  Ex- Kudzu Vine,
control erosion. It has taken Zebra Mussel, Silver
over native species
habitats. Carp
Figure 11-A
INVASIVE SPECIES

• Many invasive species have been


introduced intentionally.
Figure 11-11
INVASIVE SPECIES

• Many invasive species have been


introduced unintentionally.
Figure 11-11
What Can You Do?
Invasive Species

• Do not allow wild animals to escape.


• Do not spread wild plants to other areas.
• Do not dump the contents of an aquarium into waterways,
wetlands, or storm drains.
• When camping use wood near your campsite instead of
bringing firewood from somewhere else.
• Do not dump unused bait into the water.
• After dogs visit woods or the water brush them before taking
them home.
• After each use clean your vehicle, mountain bike, surfboard,
kayaks, canoes, boats, tent, hiking boots, and other gear before
heading for home.
• Empty all water from canoes, kayaks, dive gear, and other
outdoor equipment before heading home.
• Plant a variety of trees, shrubs, and other plants in your yard to
reduce losses from invasive species.
• Do not buy plants from overseas or swap them with others
using the Internet.
Pollution
• Each year
pesticides:
• Kill about 1/5th of
the U.S.
honeybee
colonies.
• 67 million birds.
• 6 -14 million fish.
Example of • Threaten 1/5th of
biomagnification of DDT the U.S.’s
in an aquatic food endangered and
chain. threatened
species. Figure 11-15
Climate Change

 The concern is how climate change will affect


temperature and precipitation around the
world, and how this will impact biodiversity.
OVEREXPLOITATION

• Some protected species are killed for


their valuable parts or are sold live to
collectors.
• Killing predators and pests that bother us
or cause economic losses threatens
some species with premature extinction.
• Legal and illegal trade in wildlife species
used as pets or for decorative purposes
threatens some species with extinction.
Habitat Protection
A prevention strategy;
Federally protect or protect
the environment before
endangerment occurs.
Habitat Restoration

Renewing, repairing, or
reconstructing damaged
ecosystems.
RECONCILIATION ECOLOGY
• Reconciliation ecology involves finding
ways to share places we dominate with
other species.
• Replacing monoculture grasses with
native species.
• Maintaining habitats for insect eating bats
can keep down unwanted insects.
• Reduction and elimination of pesticides to
protect non-target organisms (such as
vital insect pollinators).
Using Reconciliation Ecology to
Protect Bluebirds
• Putting up bluebird
boxes with holes
too small for
(nonnative)
competitors in
areas where trees
have been cut
down have helped
reestablish
populations.
Figure 11-B
Zoos, aquaria, gardens, etc.
Breeding programs,
protection, teach public
about the animals/
plants so they will want
to conserve them.
Conservation Organizations

Some are severe like Greenpeace-


bomb whaling vessels, etc., others
send money or try to pass laws.
Case Study:
U.S. Endangered Species Act
• One of the world’s most far-reaching and
controversial environmental laws is the 1973
U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA).
• ESA forbids federal agencies (besides
defense department) to carry out / fund
projects that would jeopardize an endangered
species.
• ESA makes it illegal for Americans to engage
in commerce associated with or hunt / kill /
collect endangered or threatened species.
OVEREXPLOITATION
• Rhinoceros are
often killed for
their horns and
sold illegally on
the black
market for
decorative and
medicinal
purposes.

Figure 11-16
Case Study: Rising Demand for
Bushmeat in Africa
• Bushmeat
hunting has
caused the local
extinction of
many animals in
West Africa.
• Can spread
disease such as
HIV/AIDS and
ebola virus.

Figure 11-17
Endangered Species

• Because of scarcity of inspectors, probably no


more than 1/10th of the illegal wildlife trade in the
U.S. is discovered.
Local Examples of
Endangered Species
 American Alligator-
threat.
 Peregrine Falcon- DM
 Whooping Crane- end.
 Bald Eagle- DM
 Grizzly Bear- threatened
PROTECTING WILD SPECIES:
LEGAL AND ECONOMIC
APPROACHES
• International treaties have helped reduce the
international trade of endangered and
threatened species, but enforcement is difficult.
• One of the most powerful is the 1975
Convention on International Trade of
Endangered Species (CITES).
• Signed by 169 countries, lists 900 species
that cannot be commercially traded.
CITIES Treaty

 Convention on International Trade in Endangered


Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
 Developed in 1973 to control the international
trade of threatened plants and animals.
 Today, CITIES is an international agreement
between 175 countries of the world.
Lacey Act

 One of the earliest laws in the U.S. to


control the trade of wildlife.
 First passed in 1900, the act prohibited
the transport of illegally harvested game
animals, primarily birds and mammals,
across state lines.
Conservation Legislation
 Marine Mammal Protection Act- prohibits the
killing of all marine mammals in the U.S. and
prohibits the import or export of any marine
mammal body parts.
Biosphere Reserves
 Protected
areas
consisting of
zones that
vary in the
amount of
permissible
human
impact.
What Can You Do?

Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity

• Adopt a forest.

• Plant trees and take care of them.

• Recycle paper and buy recycled paper products.

• Buy sustainable wood and wood products.

• Choose wood substitutes such as bamboo furniture


and recycled plastic outdoor furniture, decking, and
fencing.

• Restore a nearby degraded forest or grassland.

• Landscape your yard with a diversity of plants


natural to the area.

• Live in town because suburban sprawl reduces


biodiversity. Fig. 10-27, p. 219
What Can You Do?

Protecting Species

• Do not buy furs, ivory products, and other


materials made from endangered or threatened
animal species.

• Do not buy wood and paper products


produced by cutting remaining old-growth
forests in the tropics.

• Do not buy birds, snakes, turtles, tropical fish,


and other animals that are taken from the wild.

• Do not buy orchids, cacti, and other plants that


are taken from the wild.

• Spread the word. Talk to your friends and


relatives about this problem and what they can
do about it.
Fig. 11-21, p. 246

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