Metal Forming

• Metal forming includes a large group of manufacturing

processes in which plastic deformation is used to change
the shape of metal work pieces

• Plastic deformation: a permanent change of shape, i.e.,

the stress in materials is larger than its yield strength

• Usually a die is needed to force deformed metal into the

shape of the die

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 Metal Forming
• Metal with low yield strength and high ductility is in
favor of metal forming

• One difference between plastic forming and metal

forming is

Plastic: solids are heated up to be polymer melt

Metal: solid state remains in the whole process

- (temperature can be either cold, warm or hot)

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 Metal Forming
Metal forming is divided into: (1) bulk and (2) sheet

Bulk: (1) significant deformation

(2) massive shape change
(3) surface area to volume of the work is small

Sheet: Surface area to volume of the work is large

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 Bulk deformation processes
Forging
Rolling
Traditionally
Hot

Extrusion Drawing

handout 7a 4
Sheet deformation processes (Press working/ Stamping)
Drawing
Bending

Shearing

Actually
Cutting
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 Drawing
• Drawing Process
• Typical Products by Drawing
• Mechanics of Drawing
• Die Design and Materials
• Process Capability

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Drawing

• Drawing: The cross-section of a rod or wire reduced

by pulling it through a die (while push in extrusion).

• Process Variables: reduction in cross-section area,

die angle, friction, and drawing speed
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Typical Products

• Solid Cross-Section: rod

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Typical Products

• Solid Cross-Section: wire

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 Typical Products

• Hollow Cross-Section:

Without
mandrel

Floating
mandrel
Fixed
mandrel

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 Extrusion

• Introduction
• Typical Extruded Products
• Mechanics of Extrusion
• Defects of Extruded Parts
• Die Design
• Process Capability

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Introduction

• Extrusion
Compressive deformation
Shaped by the die opening

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Typical Products by Extrusion

• Examples: Uniform cross section along the length

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Classification of Extrusion

• Direct vs. Indirect Extrusion

• Classified by physical configuration
• Direct Extrusion: die attached to the container
a) Solid Section:

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Classification of Extrusion
a) Solid Section:
A ram force the metal flow through one or
more die openings in a die
Significant friction
Remove oxide layer by a dummy block

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Classification of Extrusion

• Direct Extrusion:
b) Hollow Section:

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Classification of Extrusion

b) Hollow Section:
The starting billet with a hole parallel to its axis A
mandrel attached to the dummy block
Shape factor: ratio of the perimeter to its cross-sectional
area, the larger the ratio, the more difficult the process

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Classification of Extrusion
• Indirect (Backward) Extrusion: die attached to the
ram
a) Solid Section:

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Classification of Extrusion

a) Solid Section:
Metal flow through the die opening
More friction and higher raming force
Ram rigidity

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Classification of Extrusion

• Indirect (Backward) Extrusion:

b) Hollow Section:

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Classification of Extrusion

b) Hollow Section:
Metal flow through the clearance between the die
and the container
No friction and lower raming force
Difficulty in supporting the ram
Limited part length

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Classification of Extrusion

• Hot vs. Cold Extrusion: classified by working temp.

• Hot Extrusion:
Heat the billet above its recrystallization temp.
Reduce strength and increase ductility
Reduce raming force
Form oxide films

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Classification of Extrusion

• Cold Extrusion:
Produce discrete part at high rates
Increase mechanical properties
Improve surface finish due partly
to lack of oxide films
Produce tight dimensional tolerances

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Classification of Extrusion

• Other Extrusion Processes: special cases of the

direct and indirect methods with unique features
• Impact Extrusion:
Impact loading
Usually cold extrusion

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Classification of Extrusion

• Hydrostatic Extrusion:
No friction
Increased ductility
Preparation of the tapered work billet

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Mechanics of Extrusion

• Metal Flow
Elongated grain structure (preferred orientation)
Dead-metal zone: metal trapped by the die angle

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Tandem mill
 Sheet-Metal Forming

• Basic Operations
• Sheet-metal Characteristics
• Shearing
• Bending
• Minimum Bending Radius
• Springback and Compensation

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 Basic Operations
• Typical Products: file cabinets, appliances, car
bodies, aircraft fuselages, beverage cans, …

Shearing

Deep
Bending
Drawing
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Sheet Metal Characteristics

• Sheet Metal:
High ratio of surface area to thickness
Thickness < 6mm
Stretch and bending by tensile forces
• Influence Factors:
a). Elongation l f l 0
 100 %
l0
n large - uniform elongation large
  K n
m large - postuniform elongation large
  C m

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Sheet Metal Characteristics
• Influence Factors:
b). Yield-Point Elongation: strain increases
without increasing stress
Lueder’s Bands: low carbon steel only
Lueder’s Band Minimization: cold rolling
then formed in a certain period of time

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Sheet Metal Characteristics

• Influence Factors: 3 2
c). Anisotropy: E1  E2  E3 1

Crystallographic Anisotropy: preferred

orientation of grains
Mechanical Fibering: alignment of
impurities, inclusions, and voids in the
thickness direction

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Sheet Metal Characteristics

• Influence Factors:
d). Grain Size
Small Grain Size – Large Strength
Large Grain Size – Rough Surface appearance
(orange peel)
e). Residual Stresses
Warpage
Stress Corrosion

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Shearing
• Shearing: the sheet cut by shear stresses generated
by a punch and a die
• Punching: slug is discarded
• Blanking: slug is the PART

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 Shearing
• Clearance: 2~8% of the sheet thickness
• Die Geometry: smooth force transition and balance

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Bending

• Bending:
Straining the metal around a straight axis
Form flanges, curls, seams, and corrugations, …
Increase stiffness (increasing moment of inertia)

Die

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Bending

• Bending Characteristics:
• Outer region: tension, smaller width
• Inner region: compression, larger width
• Springback

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