ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 1

Manufacturing Processes
Lecture 5

FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL FORMING

Dr Jun Ma

1. Overview of Metal Forming

2. Material Behavior in Metal Forming
3. Temperature in Metal Forming
4. Strain Rate Sensitivity
5. Friction and Lubrication in Metal Forming

Welcome to lecture summary 5. (This lecture works through material covered in Chapter 18
of the textbook.) In this lecture, we will introduce the fundamentals of metal forming. We
will look at the following questions:
First, what is metal forming, and what are the categories of metal forming?
Second, how do we describe material behaviour when forming metals? Material behaviour
can be understood as material deformation, so material behaviour can be described by the
stress-strain curve.
Third, what is the effect of temperature on metal forming. When temperature increases,
strength reduces, but ductility increases.
Fourth, does strain rate matter much in metal forming?
Fifth, is friction desireable, and how can we control it?
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 2

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 2

Metal Forming

Large group of manufacturing processes in

which plastic deformation is used to
change the shape of metal workpieces
• The tool, usually called a die, applies
stresses that exceed the yield strength of
the metal
• The metal takes a shape determined by
the geometry of the die

Metal forming is also called metal deformation. In metal forming, the shape of a metal piece
is changed by plastic deformation, so the plastic region in the true Stress-Strain curve is
important here. Metal flow is the nature of metal forming; the flow is caused by the stress
applied.
The metal deformation is caused by using a tool. The tool, usually called a die, applies
stresses that exceed the yield strength of the metal.
The shape of the metal product is determined by the geometry of the die.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 3

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 3

Stresses in Metal Forming

• Stresses to plastically deform the metal are

usually compressive
– Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion
• However, some forming processes
– Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
– Others bend the metal (tensile and
compressive)
– Still others apply shear stresses

We have learnt about three types of static stresses: tension, compression and shearing. In
metal forming, compression is commonly applied to plastically deform the metal. However,
tension and shearing are also used in metal forming.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 4

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 4

Material Properties in Metal Forming

• Desirable material properties:

 Low yield strength
 High ductility
 These properties are affected by temperature:
 Ductility increases and yield strength
decreases when work temperature is raised
 Other factors:
 Strain rate and friction

To be successfully formed, a metal must possess certain properties. Desirable material

properties for metal forming include a low yield strength and high ductility. High ductility
means high strain value at break. These properties are affected by temperature. When the
work temperature is raised, ductility increases and yield strength decreases. Strain rate and
friction are additional factors that affect performance in metal forming.

So we can sum up the three factors which affect metal forming: temperature, strain rate and
friction.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 5

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 5

Categories of Metal Forming Processes

1. Bulk deformation
– Rolling
– Forging
– Extrusion
– Wire and bar drawing
2. Sheet metalworking
– Bending
– Deep drawing
– Cutting

Metal forming processes can be classified into two basic categories: bulking deformation and
sheet metalworking. This classification is based on the volume to surface ratio of the
starting materials. Bulking deformation includes rolling, forging, extrusion, and wire and bar
drawing. Sheet metalworking consists mainly of bending, deep drawing and cutting.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 6

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 6

Bulk Deformation Processes

• Characterized by significant deformations

and massive shape changes
• "Bulk" refers to workpieces with relatively low
surface area-to-volume ratios

Bulk forming is a metal forming operation which causes significant shape change by
deforming a metal part; the initial form of the metal part is bulk rather than sheet. Bulk
deformation processes are generally characterized by significant deformations and massive
shape changes. The term "Bulk" describes the workpieces that have a low area-to-volume
ratio.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 7

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 7

Categories of Bulk Deformation

Bulk Deformation Processes

Basic bulk deformation processes:

(a) rolling, (b) forging, (c) extrusion and (d) drawing
7

Bulk deformation includes rolling, forging, extrusion and drawing.

One. Rolling is a compressive deformation process in which the thickness of a slab or plate is
reduced by two opposing cylindrical tools called rolls. The rolls rotate so as to draw the
work into the gap between them, and squeeze it.
Two. In forging, a workpiece is compressed between two opposing dies, so that the die
shapes are imparted to the work. Forging is traditionally a hot working process, but
nowadays many types of forging are performed cold.
Three. Extrusion is a compression process in which a work metal is forced to flow though a
die opening, thereby taking the shape of the opening as its own cross section.
Four. Drawing is a forming process in which the diameter of a round wire or bar is reduced
by pulling it though a die opening.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 8

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 8

Sheet Metalworking

• Forming and related operations performed on

metal sheets, strips, and coils
• High surface area-to-volume ratio of starting
metal, which distinguishes these from bulk
deformation
• Often called pressworking because presses
perform these operations
– Parts are called stampings
– Usual tooling: punch and die

Sheet metalworking processes are deformation operations performed on metal sheets,

strips, and coils. They are characterized by the high surface area‑to‑volume ratio of
starting metal.Sheet metalworking is often called pressworking because the machines used
to perform these operations are presses.
Sheet metal operations are accomplished using a set of tools called punch and die.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 9

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 9

Categories of Sheet Metal Working

Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending, (b) drawing, (c) shearing

Sheet metal working includes bending, drawing and shearing. In Bending (figure a), a metal
sheet or plate takes an angle along a straight axis by straining. Deep or cup drawing (figure
b) refers to the forming of a flat metal sheet into a hollow or concave shape, such as a cup,
by stretching the metal. A blankholder is used to hold down the blank while the punch
pushes into the sheet metal. A shearing operation (figure c 1 and 2) cuts the work using a
punch and a die. Although it is not a forming process, it is included here because it is a
necessary and very common operation in sheet metal working.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 10

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 10

Material Behavior in Metal Forming

• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is of

primary interest because material is plastically
deformed
• In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed
by the flow curve:
σ = Kε n
where K = strength coefficient; and n = strain
hardening exponent
 Flow curve based on true stress and true strain

10

In metal forming, the plastic region of true stress-strain curve is of primary interest because
material is plastically and permanently deformed in this region. The true stress-strain
relation in the plastic region is given in the equation on this slide, where K equals the
strength coefficient and n equals the strain hardening exponent.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 11

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 11

Flow Stress

• For most metals at room temperature, strength

increases when deformed due to strain
hardening
• Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress
required to continue deforming the material

Yf = Kε n
where Yf = flow stress, that is, the
deformation strength as a function of strain

11

Since metal flow is the nature of metal forming, true stress in the plastic region is called flow
stress in metal forming.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 12

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 12

Temperature in Metal Forming

• Any deformation operation can be

accomplished with lower forces and power at
elevated temperature
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
– Cold working
– Warm working
– Hot working

12

We have learnt about the effect of temperature on the mechanical properties of materials.
With increases in temperature, strength reduces but ductility increases. Therefore, there are
three temperature ranges used in metal forming: cold working, warm working and hot
working.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 13

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 13

Cold Working

• Performed at room temperature or slightly

above
• Many cold forming processes are important
mass production operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
– These operations are near net shape or net
shape processes

13

Cold working is metal forming performed at room temperature. Many cold forming
processes have developed into important mass production operations. They provide close
tolerances and good surfaces, minimizing the amount of machining required. Therefore,
these operations are classified as near net shape or net shape processes.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 14

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 14

Advantages of Cold Forming

• No heating of work required

• Better accuracy, closer tolerances
• Better surface finish
• Strain hardening increases strength and
hardness
• Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in product

14

Cold forming has the following advantages:

No heating of the work piece is required.
It has better accuracy, and closer tolerances.
It gives a better surface finish.
The strain hardening increases the strength and hardness.
The grain flow during deformation can cause desirable directional properties in the product.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 15

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 15

Disadvantages of Cold Forming

• Higher forces and power required in the

deformation operation
• Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free of
scale and dirt
• Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount
of forming that can be done
– In some cases, metal must be annealed to
allow further deformation
– In other cases, metal is simply not ductile
enough to be cold worked

15

There are certain disadvantages or limitations associated with cold forming operations, as
follows:
1. Higher forces and power are required in the deformation operation.
2. The surfaces of the starting workpiece must be free of scale and dirt.
3. The ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of forming that can be done. In some
cases, metal must be annealed to allow further deformation. In other cases, metal is simply
not ductile enough to be cold worked.

Note: Annealing consists of heating the metal to a suitable temperature, holding at that
temperature for a certain time (soaking), and slowly cooling. This process reduces hardness
and brittleness.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 16

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 16

Warm Working

• Performed at temperatures above room

temperature but below recrystallization
temperature
• Dividing line between cold working and warm
working often expressed in terms of melting
point:
– 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute
temperature) for metal

16

Because increasing the workpiece temperature reduces the yield strength and increases the
ductility of metals, forming operations are sometimes performed at temperatures above
room temperature but below recrystallization temperature. This is called warm working.
The dividing line between cold working and warm working is often expressed in terms of
melting point: 0.3Tm, where Tm equals melting point (absolute temperature) for metal.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 17

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 17

Hot Working

• Deformation at temperatures above the

recrystallization temperature
• Recrystallization temperature = about one-half
of melting point (absolute temperature)
– In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.5Tm
– Metal continues to soften as temperature
increases above 0.5Tm, enhancing
advantage of hot working

T---thermodynamic temperature
17

Hot working (hot forming) involves deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization
temperature. The Recrystallization temperature for a given metal is about one‑half of
melting point. The work metal softens further as the temperature is increased beyond
0.5Tm, thus enhancing the advantage of hot working.
Thermodynamic temperature is an "absolute" scale because it is the measure of the
fundamental property underlying temperature: its zero point, absolute zero, is the
temperature at which the particle constituents of matter have minimal motion and can be
no colder. Absolute zero is defined as 0 K on the Kelvin scale and as minus 273.15°C on the
Celsius scale
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 18

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 18

Why Hot Working?

Capability for substantial plastic deformation of

the metal - far more than possible with cold
working or warm working
• Why?

 Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less

than at room temperature
 Strain hardening exponent (n) is zero
(theoretically)
 Ductility is significantly increased

18

The most significant advantage of hot working is the capability for substantial plastic
deformation of the metal ‑ far more than possible with cold working or warm working. This
is because the Strength coefficient (K) is substantially less than at room temperature, the
Strain hardening exponent (n) is close to zero and the Ductility is significantly increased.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 19

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 19

Advantages of Hot Working

• Lower forces and power required

• workpiece shape can be significantly altered
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can
be hot formed
• Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
• No strengthening of part occurs from work
hardening

19

The advantages of hot working are as follows:

1. Lower forces and power are required to deform the metal.
2. The shape of the workpiece can be significantly altered.
3. Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed.
4. The strength properties are generally isotropic because of the absence of the oriented
grain structure typically created in cold working.
5. No strengthening of the part occurs from work hardening.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 20

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 20

Disadvantages of Hot Working

• Higher total energy required (due to the

thermal energy to heat the workpiece)
• Lower dimensional accuracy
• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface
finish
• Shorter tool life

20

The disadvantages of hot working are as follows:

1. Higher total energy is required (due to the thermal energy to heat the workpiece).
2. The dimensional accuracy is not good.
3. It produces work surface oxidation (scale), resulting in poorer surface finish.
4. Tool life is reduced.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 21

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 21

Strain Rate Sensitivity

• Theoretically, a metal in hot working behaves

like a perfectly plastic material, with strain
hardening exponent n = 0
– The metal should continue to flow at the
same flow stress, once that stress is
reached
– However, an additional phenomenon occurs
during deformation, especially at elevated
temperatures: Strain rate sensitivity

21

Let’s review and compare the three types of Stress-Strain curves. Theoretically, a metal in
hot working behaves like a perfectly plastic material, with strain hardening exponent n = 0.
This means that the metal should continue to flow under the same level of flow stress, once
that stress is reached. However, the flow stress increases with strain in the plastic region,
especially at elevated temperatures. That phenomenon is called strain rate sensitivity.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 22

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 22

What is Strain Rate?

• Strain rate in forming is directly related to

speed of deformation v
• Deformation speed v = velocity of the ram or
other movement of the equipment
• Strain rate is defined: .
v
ε=
h
.
where ε = true strain rate; and h =
instantaneous height of workpiece being
deformed

22

Strain rate is the rate at which a metal is strained in a forming process. The rate is directly
related to speed of deformation v. In many forming operations, the deformation speed v is
equal to the velocity of the ram or other moving parts .
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 23

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 23

Effect of Strain Rate on Flow Stress

• Flow stress is a function of temperature

• At hot working temperatures, flow stress also
depends on strain rate
– As strain rate increases, resistance to
deformation increases
– This effect is known as strain-rate sensitivity

23

Flow stress of a metal is a function of temperature. At hot working temperatures, flow

stress also depends on strain rate. This effect of strain rate on strength properties is known
as strain‑rate sensitivity.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 24

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 24

Strain Rate Sensitivity

(a) Effect of strain rate on flow stress at an elevated work temperature.

(b) Same relationship plotted on log-log coordinates.

24

This effect can be seen in the figure. As the strain rate is increased, flow stress increases.
This usually plots approximately as a straight line on a log-log graph. So there is a linear
relation between log flow stress and log strain rate.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 25

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 25

Strain Rate Sensitivity Equation

Yf = Cε m
where C = strength constant (similar but
not equal to strength coefficient in flow
curve equation), and m = strain-rate
sensitivity exponent

σ = Kε n
25

The strength constant is the flow stress when strain rate equals 1, while the strain rate
sensitivity exponent is the slope of the straight portion.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 26

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 26

Effect of Temperature on Flow Stress

Effect of temperature on flow

stress for a typical metal. The
constant C, as indicated by
the intersection of each plot
with the vertical dashed line
at strain rate = 1.0,
decreases, and m (slope of
each plot) increases with
increasing temperature.

Yf = Cε m
26

This plot indicates the effect of temperature on flow stress. With increasing temperature,
these lines become steeper.
So we conclude the following:
Increasing temperature decreases strength constant C and increases strain-rate sensitivity
exponent m .
At room temperature, therefore, the effect of strain-rate sensitivity exponent is almost
negligible.
As temperature is increased, strain rate plays a more important role in determining flow
stress.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 27

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 27

Friction in Metal Forming

• In most metal forming processes, friction is

undesirable:
– Metal flow is retarded
– Forces and power are increased
– Tooling wears faster
• Friction and tool wear are more severe in hot
working

27

Friction in metal forming arises because of the close contact under high pressures between
the tool and work surfaces. In most metal forming processes, friction is undesirable for the
following reasons:
Firstly, metal flow is retarded, causing residual stresses and sometimes defects in the
product. Forces and power needed to perform the operation are increased. Tooling wears
faster, which leads to loss of dimensional accuracy, resulting in defective parts and requiring
replacement of the tooling.
Secondly, friction and tool wear are more severe in hot working because of the much
harsher environment.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 28

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 28

Lubrication in Metal Forming

• Metalworking lubricants are applied
to tool-work interface in many
forming operations to reduce
harmful effects of friction
• Benefits:
– Reduces sticking, forces, power, tool wear
– Better surface finish
– Removes heat from the tooling

28

Metalworking lubricants are applied to tool-work interface in many forming operations to

reduce the harmful effects of friction. Using lubricates reduces sticking, forces, power, and
tool wear. It gives a better surface finish and removes heat from the tooling.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 29

ENR212- Lecture 5- Slide No. 29

Considerations in Choosing a Lubricant

• Type of forming process (rolling, forging, sheet

metal drawing, etc.)
• Hot working or cold working
• Work material
• Chemical reactivity with tool and work metals
• Ease of application
• Cost

29

When choosing an appropriate metalworking lubricant, consider the points on this slide.
ENR212 Lecture 5 Slides and Notes

Slide 30

Thank you

30

Thanks for your attention.