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ESAS Formulas

BS Electrical Engineering (Rizal Technological University)

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UNITS OF MEASUREMENT Power (P) Horsepower Metric Hp Watt (W)

(HP) (MHp) Kilowatt(KW)
QUALITY ENGLISH METRUC SI Megawatt(MW)
Length Feet (ft) Meter (m) Meter (m) Specific Heat (c) Btu kcal kJ
(L) Inches (in) Centimeter (cm) lb-°F kg-°C kg-K
Millimeter (mm)
Kilometer (km) Specific Btu kcal kJ
Area (A) ft2, in2 m2, cm2, mm2 m2 Enthalpy (h) Lb kg kg
Volume (V) ft3, in3, m3, cm3, liters m3 Thermal Btu – in kcal W
gallons (gal) Conductivity (k) ft2 - °F m-°C m-K
Mass (m) Slugs, pound- kilogram-mass kilogram
mass (lbm) (kgm)
Weight, Force pound (lb) kilogram-force Newton (N) RELATIONS OF UNITS
(W, F) (kgf, kilopond) Kilonewton (KN)
Density (ρ) lbm/ft3 kgm/m3 kg/m3
3
Specific Weight lbf/ft kgf/m3 kN/m3 in ft
1.609 km cm
12 5280 mi 100 m
(δ) kgf/li N/m3 ft mi
Specific Volume ft3/lb m3/kg, li/kg m3/kg
(V)
ft in ft mm
Temperature Degrees Degrees Degrees 3 yd 39.37 m 6080 naut. mi 1000
m
(t, T) Fahrenheit(°F) Celsius (°C) Celsius (°C)
Degrees Kelvin (K) Kelvin (K)
Rankein (°R) ft mm microns
Angle (ө) Degrees (°) Gradient (grad) Radians (rad) 3.28 m 25.4 104 1000 m
in cm km
Time (t, T) Seconds (sec, s) sec, min, hr sec
Minutes (min,
m) AREA
Hours (hr, h)
Velocity, Speed, ft/sec m/sec m/sec
2
Rate (V, v, r) ft/min km/hr 144 in2 cm2 ft2 m2 acres
ft3/sec m3/sec 3 10000 m2 10.76 10000 ha 2.471 ha
Volume m /sec ft m2
Flow Rate gal/min (gpm) li/sec
(V, Q)
Pressure, Stress lb/in2 (psi) kg/m2 Pascal (Pa)
2
(P, p, s) lb/ft (psf) kg/cm2 Kilopascal(Kpa) VOLUME
3
Megapascal(Mpa) 1728 in3 gal qts li
Work, Energy, ft-lbs kgf-m Joules (J) ft 7.481 ft3 4 gal 3.7854 gal
Torque in-lbs Kilojoules(KJ)
3
(W, E, T) 231 in ft3
35.31 2 pts 1000 li3
Heat (Q, q) Btu calorie (cal) J, KJ gal m3 qt m
kilocalorie (kcal)
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FORCE, MASS POWER

oz lb lb gr 550 ft-lbs/sec Btu/min kJ/sec MHp
16 32.174 2.205 kg 1000 kg 42.4 1 KW 1.014
lb slug hp hp Hp

1000 lb 7000 grains 9.81

N lbs
2205 MTon 33,000 ft-lbs/min
3413
Btu/hr
0.746
KW
33,480
Btu/hr
kip lb kg hp kw HP Boiler Hp

2000 lb 1000 kg 0.00981 kN 1000

N 2545 Btu/hr 1
J/sec 0.736 KW 35,322 kJ/hr
ton MTon kg kN hp W MHp Boiler Hp

ANGLE TEMPERATURE

π rad 2π rad 360 deg 90 deg 60 min 60 sec °C = 5/9 (°F-32) °F = 9/5 °C + 32 °R = °F + 460 K = °C + 273
180 deg rev rev 100 grad deg min

TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
TIME
°C = 5/9 °F °F = 9/5 °C °C = K °F = °R
sec min sec hrs hrs
60 60 3600 24 8760 year
min hr hr day
UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT

PRESSURE ft-lb kJ
p mole - °R kg mole - K
psi 760 mm Hg KPa N/m2
14.696 101.325 1
atm atm atm Pa
PROPERTIES OF AIR
c
29.921 in.Hg kg/cm2 KPa 1 kN/m
2
p = 0.24 Btu = 0.24 kcal = 1.0 kJ
1.033 100
atm atm bar KPa lb-°F kg-°C kg-°C
c
v = 0.171 Btu = kcal = kJ
0.171 0.716
ENERGY lb-°F kg-°C kg-°C
778 ft-lb cal
252 Btu
kJ
4.187 kcal 1
kN-m
Btu kJ R= ft-lb = 0.287 kJ
53.3
lb-°R kg-KC
kJ 0.252 kcal N-m K
1.055 1 1000
Btu Bt J kJ

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PROPERTIES OF WATER ALGEBRA

EXPONENTS AND RADICALS

c
p = specific heat (sensible heat) of liquid = 4.187 kJ
kg-°C a◦ = 1 am m-n 1 (ab)m = ambm
=a = a -m
an am
= 1 Btu
lb - °F am · am+n (am)n = amn am/n = n√am (a/b)m = am/bm
kJ Btu
L = latent heat of fusion = 335 = 144
kg lb
FACTORS AND PRODUCTS
kJ
Specific (sensible) heat of ice = 2.093 = 0.5 Btu a(x + y) = ax + ay (x + y)(x-y) = x2 – y2
kg-°C lb- °F (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2 (x3 + y3) = (x + y) (x2 – xy + y2)
(x - y)2 = x2 – 2xy + y2 (x3 – y3) = (x – y) (x2 + xy +y2)
kJ
Latent heat of vaporization (from and at 100°C) = 2257 TYPES OF EQUATIONS AND HOW THE UNKNOWNS ARE
kg SOLVED

= 970.3 Btu 1. Linear Equation in one unknown

lb Simple Transposition
Latent of water vapor in air and flue gases (average) 2. Linear Equations in two or more unknowns
a. Substitution
= 2442 kJ = 1050 Btu b. Elimination
kg lb c. Determinants
3. Quadratic Equation in one unknown
Standard Form: ax2 + bx + c = 0
a. Factoring (if factorable)
b. Quadratic Formula:

x =-b √b – 4a
+ 2

2a
c. Completing the Square
4. Quadratic Equations in two more unknowns
a. Substitution
b. Elimination
c. Determinants
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Solution of a differential equation – an expression, free from Solution:

derivatives, which is consistent with the given 1. Put the given equation into the standard form;
differential equation. 2. Obtain the Integrating Factor e∫ P dx
3. Apply the integrating factor to the equation in
a. General Solution – solution that contains arbitrary its standard form.
constants. 4. Solve the resulting exact equation.

b. Particular Solution – solution that does not contain any

more arbitrary constants.
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
I. VARIABLE SEPARABLE
This is a type of differential equation which can be put in DEFINITIONS
the form Engineering Mechanics – a science which deals with the study
A(x) dx + B(y) dy = 0 of forces and motion of rigid bodies.
that is, the variables can be separated.
I. Statics – branch of Mechanics which studies forces on
II. HOMOGENEOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION rigid bodies that remain at rest.
This is a type of differential equation in which all the terms II. Dynamics – branch of Mechanics which considers the
are of the same degree. motion of rigid bodies caused by the forces acting upon
Solution: Let y = vx them.
The substitution will make the equation variable separable. 1. Elinematics: deals with pure motion
2. Kinetics: relates motion to the applied forces
III. EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
This is a type of differential equation which when put in the FORCES
form Coplanar forces – forces that lie on one plane
M(x,y) dx + N(x,y) dy = 0 Non-coplanar forces – forces that do not lie on one plane
a function can be found which has for its total differential
the expression M dx + N dy. Resultant of Forces:
A differential equation is exact if әM = әN
әy әx
F2 R
IV. LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION θ
A type of differential equation which can be put in the
standard form: F1
dy + P(x) y dx = Q(x) dx

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Parallelogram Method: Resultant of Three or More Concurrent Forces:

R = √ F12 + F22 - F1 F2cos(180- θ) R = √ΣFx2 + ΣFy2 y

F2 F1
θ = tan-1 ΣFy
F2 R ΣFx x

θ F3
F1
R = √F12 + F22 Moment of Force = Force x Perpendicular distance from the axis to the
θ = tan-1 F2/F1 line of action of the force

“Free Body” Diagram – diagram of an isolated body at which shows

Components of a Force: only the forces acting on the body

Fy F
θ STATICS
x
Fx Forces in Equilibrium (Condition of Statics)

ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0 ΣM = 0

PARABOLIC CABLES
y L
F x TA 2
θ A
Fy
Fx d
H
Fx = F cos θ
Fy = F sin θ w(L/2)

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ΣMA = 0: FRICTION
H(d) – w(L/2) (L/4) = 0
F = fN where: F = frictional force
2
H = wL N = normal force (reaction normal to the
8d surface of contact)
W f = coefficient of static friction
From force triangle: a. coefficient of static friction
(for bodies that are not moving)
TA = √H2 + [w(L/2)]2 TA b. coefficient of kinetic friction
(for bodies that are moving)
Length of Cable = L + 8d2 – 32d4 w(L/2)
3L 5L3 F=fN N
H
KINEMATICS: RECTILINEAR MOTION
CATENARY
1. a = V2 – V1 a = acceleration, m/sec2
TA = TB =wy t + when accelerating
H = tension at lowest point - when decelerating
= wc 2. S = V1t + 1/2at2 V = velocity, m/sec
y = s2 + c2
2
S = distance, m
x = c ln s+y 3. V22 = V12 + 2aS t = time, sec
c
L = 2x a = dV/dt
L y = dS/dt
A B
s s FALLING BODIES

y y 1. g = V2 – V1 g = acceleration of gravity
c w kg/m t = 9.81 m/sec2 = 32.2 ft/sec2
x x + when going down
2. S = V1t + 1/2gt2 - when going up

3. V22 = V12 + 2gS

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PROJECTILE KINETICS

Vo = initial velocity REVERSED EFFECTIVE FORCE

t = time of flight
W
Horizontal displacement: motion accelerating
x = Vo cos ө t
Vertical displacement: (W/g)a P
y = Vo sin ө t – ½ gt2 F = fN
Equation of path of projectile:
(Parabola) N
y = x tan ө - g x2
2Vo2 cos2 ө W
y
motion decelerating
Vo (w/g)a
Vy ө y F = fN
x
Vx
x Range N

(w/g)a = reversed effective force (acceleration force)

a = acceleration
Vx = Vo cos ө
Vy = Vo sin ө WORK-ENERGY METHOD

KE1 + PW – NW = KE2
ROTATION (ANGULAR MOTION)
KE1 = initial kinetic energy
1. ∞ = ω2 – ω1 PW = positive work
2. ө = ω1 t + ½ ∞ t2 NW = negative work
3. ω22 = ω12 + 2 ∞ ө KE2 = final kinetic energy
= WV22
∞ = angular acceleration, rad/sec2 or rev/sec2 2g
ω = angular velocity, rad/sec or rev/sec
ө = angular displacement, rad or rev
t = time, sec

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WORK, ENERGY AND POWER STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

Work = Force x Distance STRESSES

Power = Force x Distance = Force x Velocity Stress = Force/Area
Time Ultimate Stress = the stress that will cause failure
Allowable Stress (or Safe Stress) = Ultimate Stress
MOMENTUM Factor of Safety

Before Impact: 1) Tensile Stress

m1 V1 V2 m2

After Impact:

V1 m1 m2 V2 F

st = F/A
Conservation of Momentum:
m1V1 + m2V2 = m1V1’ + m2V2’ 2) Compressive Stress F

e = coefficient of restitution

= V2’ – V1’
V1’ – V2’

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE se = F/A

Fc = W V2
gr 3) Shearing Stress

Fc = centrifugal force F F
W = weight of body being rotated
V = peripheral velocity = πDN ss = F/A
r = radius of rotation

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4) Bearing Stress Cylinder:

F P

t
L
D st = tangential stress
= PD/2t

sb = F/DL Sphere: P
5) Bending (Flexural) Stress
F
D

sf = Mc/I t
s = PD/4t
e
NA h 8) Strain; Elongation
Strain = Y/L
b Stress = F/A
E = Modulus of Elasticity
where: M = moment (Young’s Modulus)
c = distance of farthest fiber neutral axis (NA) = F/A
I = moment of inertia about the neutral axis Y/L
= bh3/12 for rectangular section Y = FL/AE = s(L/E)

6) Torsional Stress Y = elongation (or shortening)

L = length
ss = Tc/J T = torque F = force L
ss = 16T/πD3 J = polar moment of inertia A = area
(for circular section where D = diameter) s = stress
7) Stresses in Thin Pressure Vessels Y

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9) Thermal Elongation; Stress DEFLECTION OF BEAMS

Y = k L (t2 – t1)
d2y = M
Y = elongation due to temperature change, m dx2 El
k = coefficient of thermal expansion, m/m-°C P
t1 = initial temperature, °C L
t2 = final temperature, °C
Y
SHEAR AND MOMENT IN BEAMS
y = PL3
Positive Shear 3EI

P
Negative Shear L/2 L/2

Positive Bending Moment y

y = PL3
48EI
Negative Bending Moment
IMPACT LOAD

w(h+y) = P(y/2)
Load Diagram where P = maximum force (on the spring)
y = deflection of spring
W
Shear Diagram
h

y P

Moment Diagram

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FLUID MECHANICS where: hf = friction head loss, m

f = coefficient of friction
GENERAL FLOW EQUATION L = length of pipe, m
V = velocity, m/sec
where: A = area, m3 g = 9.81 m/sec2
V = velocity, m/sec D = internal diameter, m
BUOYANCY
Q = A x V m3/sec
Archimedes Principle:
FLOW THROUGH NOZZLE A body partly or wholly submerged in a liquid is
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the liquid
where: A = area of nozzle displaced.
Cd = coefficient of discharge
h = height of liquid above FORCE EXERTED BY A JET (HYDRODYNAMICS)
nozzle
F=m V = (w/g)V
Q = Cd A √2 gh m3/sec
where: W = flow rate, kg/sec
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE: PRESSURE HEAD g = 9.81 m/sec2
V = velocity of jet, m/sec
Pressure = Height x Density or h = Pressure/Density
PERIPHERAL COEFFICIENT
VELOCITY HEAD
Peripheral Coefficient = Peripheral Velocity
V = √2gh or h = V2/2g Velocity of Jet

FRICTION HEAD LOSS IN PIPES = πDN

√2gh
hf = f L V2 / 2 g D (Darcy Formula) ENGINEERING ECONOMICS

= 2 f L V2 / gd (Morse Formula, and f should be taken from DEFINITIONS

Morse’s table)
Engineering Economics – the study of the cost factors involved in
engineering projects, and using the results of such study in
employing the most efficient cost-saving techniques without
affecting the safety and soundness of the project.

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Investment – the sum of total of first cost (fixed capital) and working INTEREST
capital which is being put up in a project with the aim of getting a
profit. Interest – money paid for the use of borrowed money

Fixed Capital – part of the investment whish is required to acquire or SIMPLE INTEREST
set up the business.
I = Pni
Working Capital – the amount of money set aside as part of the S = P + I = P + Pni
investment to keep the project or business continuously operating. where: P = principal or present value
n = number of interest periods
Demand – the quantity of a certain commodity that is bought at a i = interest rate per period ( if not specified, consider
certain price at a given place and time. per year)
I = interest
Supply – the quantity of a certain commodity that is offered for sale at S = sum or future value
a certain place at a given place and time.
Ordinary Simple Interest:
Perfect Competition – a business condition in which a product or 1 year = 12 months = 360 days
service is supplied by a number of vendors and there is no
restriction against additional vendors entering the market. Exact Simple Interest:
1 year = 12 months = 365 days
Monopoly – a business condition in which unique product or service is
available from only one supplier and that supplier can prevent the COMPOUND INTEREST
entry of all others into the market.
S = P(1+i)n where: S = compound amount or future
Oligopoly – a condition in which there are so few suppliers of a P= S worth
product or service that action by one will almost result in similar (1+i)n P = original sum or principal
action by the others. i = interest rate per period
n = number of interest periods
Law of Supply and Demand: “Under conditions of perfect (1+i)n is called single payment
competition, the price of a product will be such that the supply and compound amount factor
demand are equal.”

Law of Diminishing Returns: “When the use of one of the factors of

production is limited, either in increasing cost or by absolute
quantity, a point will be reached beyond which an increase in the
variable factors will result in a less than proportionate increase in
output.”

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Cash Flow Diagram – a graphical representation of cash flows Types of Annuity:

drawn on a time scale. Ordinary Annuity: payments occur at the end of each
S period
1 2 3 n Annuity Due: payments occur at the beginning of each
P period
Discount = S-P Deferred Annuity: first payment occurs later that at the
Rate of Discount = d = S-P end of the first period
S
Ordinary Annuity:
Nominal and Effective Interest Rates
Examples: Nominal Rate Effective Rate 1 2 3 n
12% compounded 12 = 6% per semi-annual R R R R R
semi-annually 2
P = R [(1+i)n – 1 / i(1+i)n]
12% compounded 12 = 3% per quarter
quarterly 4 R = periodic payments
12% compounded 12 = 1% per month i = interest rate per period
monthly 12 n = number of periods
To find effective rate per year: P = present value of the periodic payments
S = value of the periodic payments at the end of n periods
i = (1 + (in/m))m -1
where: in = nominal rate S = R[ (1+i)-1 / i ]
m = periods per year
Annuity Due, Example:
ANNUITY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Annuity – a series of equal payments occurring at equal R R R R R
intervals of time
P = R [(1+i)5 -1 / i(1+1)5]
Applications of annuity: (1+i)3
1. installment purchase
2. amortization of loan Perpetuity – an annuity that continues indefinitely
(amortization – payment of debt by installment usually P = R/I
by equal amounts and at equal intervals of time) where: P = resent value of the perpetuity
3. depreciation R = periodic payments
4. payment of insurance premiums i = interest rate per period

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DEPRECIATION AND VALUATION 4. scrap value – the price of a property when sold for junk
5. fair value – the worth of a property as determined by a
Depreciation – the decrease in value of a physical property due disinterested party which is fair to both seller and buyer
to the passage of time 6. use value – the worth of a property as an operating unit
7. face or par value of a bond – the amount that appears on the
1. Physical Depreciation – type of depreciation caused by the bond which is the price at which the bond is first bought
lessening of the physical ability of the property to produce
results, such as physical damage, wear and tear. Depletion – the decrease in value of a property due to the
2. Functional Depreciation – type of depreciation caused by gradual extraction of its contents, such as mining properties, oil
lessening in the demand for which the property is designed wells, timber lands and other consumable resources.
to render, such as obsolescence and inadequacy.
METHODS OF COMPUTING DEPRECIATION
Valuation (Appraisal) – the process of determining the value or 1. Straight Line Method
worth of a physical property for specific reasons. Annual Depreciation = (FC-SV) / n
FC = first cost
Purposes of Depreciation: SV = salvage or scrap value
1. To provide for the recovery of capital which has been n = useful life
invested in the property.
2. To enable the cost of depreciation to be charged to the cost Book Value after m years
of producing the products that are turned out by the = FC – m((FC-SV)/n))
property. 2. Sinking Fund Method
Annual Dep = FC – SV
First Cost (FC) – the total amount invested on the property [(1+i)n-1 / i]
until the property is put into operation. i = interest rate or worth of money

Economic Life – the length of time at which a property can be Book Value after m years
operated at a profit. = FC – (annual Dep) [(1+i)m-1]
i
Value – the present worth of all the future profits that are to be
received through ownership of the property. 3. Declining-Balance Method (also called Diminishing-Balance
1. market value – the price that will be paid by a willing buyer Method, Matheson Method, Constant-Percentage or Constant-
to a willing seller for a property where each has equal Ratio Method)
advantage and is under no compulsion to buy or sell
2. book value – the worth of a property as shown in the k = constant ratio =1 - n√SV/FC
accounting records.
3. salvage or resale value – the price of a property when sold
second-hand; also called trade-in value.

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Dep1 = k(FC) 2. Using Straight Line Method:

Dep2 = k(FC) (1-k) Annual Depreciation = FC - SV
Dep3 = k(FC) (1-k)2 n
Dep4 = k(FC) (1-k)4 Average Interest = i/2 ((n+1)/n)) (FC-SV) + i(SV)
.
. CAPITALIZED COST
Depn = k(FC) (1-k)n-1
Capitalized Cost – the sum of the first cost and the present
Book Value after m years worth of all cost of replacement, operation and maintenance for
= FC(1-k)m a long time.

4. Sum-of-the-Years-Digits Method 1. For life n:

SYD = 1 +2 + 3 + . . . . . + n where: n = useful life Capitalized Cost = FC + OM/i + FC – SV
(1+i)n-1
Dep1 = (FC-SV)(n/SYD)
Dep2 = (FC-SV)(n-1/SYD) where: OM = annual operation and maintenance
Dep3 = (FC-SV)(n-2/SYD) cost
etc
2. For perpetual life:
Book Value after m years Capitalized Cost = FC + OM/i
= FC (Dep1 + Dep2 + Dep3 . . . + Depm)
BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS
Break-Even Point – the value of a certain variable for
which the costs of two alternatives are equal.
5. Service Output or Production Units Method
Depreciation (Per Unit) = FC-SV Income Income
No. of Units Capacity &
Expense
6. Working Hours or Machine Hours Method Expenses
Depreciation (Per Hour) = FC-SV
No. of Hours Capacity Break-Even Point
Fixed Cost
CAPITAL RECOVERY: FACTORS OF ANNUAL COST
1. Using Sinking Fund Method:
Annual Depreciation = FC_- SV No. of Units Produced
[(i+i)n-1 / i] and Sold
Interest on Investment = i(FC)

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INCOME = P(x) c. Debenture bond – a type of bond in which there is no security

EXPENSES = M(x) + L(x) + V(x) + FC behind except a promise to pay

To break even: Bond Value:

INCOME = EXPENSES
1 2 3 n
x = no. of units produced and sold Fr Fr Fr Fr Fr
P = selling price per unit
M = material cost per unit P = Fr (1+i)n-1 + C
L = labor cost per unit I(1 + i)n (1+i)n
V = variable cost per unit
FC = fixed cost P = value of bond n periods before maturity

BUSINESS ORGANIZATIONS; CAPITAL FINANCING F = face or par value

r = bond rate
Types of Business Organizations Fr = periodic dividend
1. Individual Ownership n = no. of periods
2. Partnership C = redeemable value (usually equal to par)
3. Corporation I = investment rate
a. Private Corporation
b. Public Corporation BASIC INVESTMENT STUDIES
c. Semi-Public Corporation Basic investment studies are made to determine whether an
d. Quasi-Public Corporation investment should be made or not, based on the following
e. Non-Profit Corporation criteria:

Stock – certificate of ownership of corporation 1. Rate of Return

a. common stock Rate of Return = Net Profit
b. preferred stock Total Investment

Bond – a certificate of indebtedness of a corporation usually for a 2. Payout Period

period of not less than 10 years and guaranteed by a mortgage on Payout Period = length of time that the investment can
certain assets of the corporation or its subsidiaries be recovered
= Total Investment – Salvage Value
Types of bond according to security behind: Net Annual Cash Flow
a. Mortgage bond – type of bond in which the security behind are
the asset of the corporation
b. Collateral bond – type of bond in which the security behind are
the assets of a well known subsidiary.
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SELECTION OF ALTERNATIVES 6. Future Worth

Studies on selection of alternatives are made to determine in This is applicable when the alternatives involve expenses
what manner an investment should be undertaken, based on any of the whose future worth is the more suitable basis of
following criteria: comparison.

1. Present Economy REPLACEMENT STUDIES

This involves selection of alternatives in which interest or This is an application of selection of alternatives in which the
time value of money is not a factor. Studies usually involve alternatives are: to replace the old equipment with anew one or to
the selection between alternative designs, material or continue using the old equipment. Two criteria commonly used are:
methods.
1. Rate of return
2. Rate of Return Rate of Return = Savings Incurred by Replacement
Rate of Return = Net Profit Additional Capital Required
Total Investment
The alternative which gives a higher rate of return on The computed rate of return is then compared with the
investment is then the favorable choice. given interest rate or worth of money.

3. Payout Period 2. Annual Cost

Payout Period = Total Investment – Salvage Value Annual Cost = Depreciation + Interest on capital +
Net Annual Cash Flow Operation and Maintenance + Other Out-Of-Pocket-
The alternative which has a shorter payout period will Expenses
be the choice.
In computing the depreciation and interest of the old
4. Annual Cost equipment in either method, actual present realizable values
Annual Cost = Depreciation + Interest on Capital + and not historical values should be used.
Operation and Maintenance + Other Out-of-Pocket
Expenses BENEFIT-TO COST RATIO IN PUBLIC PROJECTS

The alternative with a lower annual cost is then the Consider a public project which has the following:
more economical alternative.
5. Present Worth FC = first cost
This is applicable when the alternatives involve future SV = salvage value at the end of life
expenses whose present value can be easily determined. n = useful life
OM = annual operation and maintenance cost
i = interest rate or worth of money per year

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i = interest rate or worth of money per year PROPERTIES OF WORKING SUBSTANCE

B = annual benefits, that is, the annual worth of benefits
incurred because of the existence of the project 1. Pressure = Force KN/m2 or KPa
C = annual equivalent of the cost Area
C= FC - SV
n
(1+i) -1 (1+i)n - 1 Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Absolute
n
i(1+i) i Atmospheric Pressure
KPa = KPag + 101.325
B/C = Benefit-to-cost ratio 1 Atm = 0 KPag
= B - OM = 101.325 KPa
C = 29.92 in.Hg
B/C should be greater than 1 for the project to be = 760 mm Hg
justifiable. SV = 14.7 psia
B B B B B = 1.033 kg/cm2
Pressure of Perfect Vacuum
= -101.325 KPag
1 Bar = 100 KPa

FC o Plenum

THERMODYNAMICS gauge

DEFINITIONS
o Atm. Press. = 0KPag
Thermodynamics – study of heat and work and those properties
of substances that bear a relation to heat and work. gauge
abs
Working Substance – a substance to which heat can be stored o Vacuum
and from which heat can be extracted.
abs
a. Pure Substance – a working substance whose chemical
composition remains the same even if there is a change in Perfect Vac.
phase; water, ammonia, Freon-12 are pure substances. = -101.325 KPag
b. Ideal Gas – a working substance which remains in gaseous
state during its operating cycle (and whose equation of state
is PV = mRT); air, O2, N2, CO2 are ideal gases.
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2. Temperature – the degree of hotness or coldness of a Positive Temperature

substance. ºC
Relation of Temperature
Scales, ºC and ºF: 0ºC
ºC = 5/9 (ºF – 32) ºC
ºF = 9/5 ºC + 32 Negative Temperature
x2 K
Temperature at which molecules stop moving (abs)
x1
= -273ºC = -460ºF
K (abs)
Absolute Temperatures: -273ºC
K = ºC + 273
ºR = ºF + 460

Temperature Difference: 3. Specific Volume and Density

ºC = 5/9 ºF v = specific volume = volume m3/kg
ºF = 9/5 ºC Mass

K = ºC f = density = Mass kg/m3

ºR = ºF Volume

212ºF 100ºC 4. Internal Energy, u, kJ/kg

– heat energy due to the movement of the molecules
ºF ºC within the substance brought about by its temperature.

5. Flow Work = work due to the change in volume

32ºF 0ºC = pv kJ/kg where: P = pressure, KPa
v = specific volume, m3/kg

6. Enthalpy = Internal Energy + Flow Work

h = u + Pv kJ/kg

7. Entropy, s, kJ
kg - º K

s = ∫ dQ/T

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WORK AND HEAT

W = m(h1-h2)
Work = Force x Distance V2 1 q
W = ∫F dL = ∫F dv/A = ∫ P dV m
V1

dL W

Heat – form of energy due to temperature difference 2

Mechanical Equivalent of Heat:

1 J = 1 N-m SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
1 kJ = 1 kN-m Kelvin-Planck statement applied to the heat engine:
Specific Heat – the heat required to change the temperature of 1kg of a “It is a cycle and receives a given amount of heat
substance 1ºC engine which operates temperature body and does an equal
cp = specific heat at constant pressure, kJ or kJ amount of work”
kg - ºC kg – K
cv = specific heat at constant volume, , kJ or kJ Clausius statement applied to the heat pump:
kg - ºC kg – K “It is impossible to construct a heat pump that operates
Power = time rate of doing work = Work without an input of work”.
Time
The most efficient operating cycle is the Carnot Cycle.
1 W = 1 J/sec 1 HP = 0.746 KW
1 KW = 1 kJ/sec 1 Metrio HP = 0.736 KW IDEAL GAS
Definition: An ideal gas is a substance that has the equation of state:
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS PV = mRT where: P = absolute pressure, KPa
V = volume, m3 or m3/sec
Total Energy Entering a System m = mass, kg pr kg/sec
= Total Energy Leaving R = gas constant, kJ/kg-K
H1 + KE1 + PE1 = H2 + KE2 + PE2 + q + W T = absolutr temperature, K

From which:
W /+ m(h1 – h2) + 1/2 m(V12 – V12) + m(z1 – z2) – q
So that if KE, PE and q are negligible:

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Basis Properties of an Ideal Gas: Process P, V & T Work Heat Added Entropy
Relations Done Change
R = 8.3143 / M where: R = gas constant
M = molecular weight Constant P1 = P2 P1(V2-V1) m ep(T2-T1) mcp ln T2
cp – cv = R cp = specific heat at constant pressure Pressure T1
(Charles’
cv = specific heat at constant volume V1 = V2
Law)
k = cp/cv k = specific heat ratio T1 T2

Properties of Air: V1 = V2 0 m cv(T2-T1) mcv ln T2

M R cp cv k T1
28.97 0.287 1.0 0.716 1.4 P1 = P2
(1.003) T1 T2

Processes Involving Ideal Gases Constant T1 = T2 mRT1lnV2 mRlnV2

Any Process: Temperature P1V1lnV2 V1 V1
(Boyles’ V1
Law) P1V1 = P2V2
P1V1 = P2V2 = mR Constant PVk = C 0 0
T1 T2 Entropy
P1V1k = P2V2k
U2-U1 = m cv (T2-T1)
H2-H1 = m cp (T2-T1) T2 = P2 k-1/k P1V1-P2V2
k-1
T1 P1
S2-S1 = mcplnT2 - mRlnP2
T1 P1

Reversible Process: No friction loss T2 = V1 k-1

Adiabatic Process: No heat loss, no heat gain, that is, T1 V2
completely insulated system
Adiabatic Throttling Process: constant enthalpy or isenthalpic Polytropic PVn = C mcv(n-k)(T2-T1) mcv(n-k) ln T2
process, that is, h2 = h1 and t2 = t1 n-1 n-1 T1
Constant Pressure or Isobaric Process: P1 = P2
P1V1n = P2V2n
Constant Volume or Isovolumic Process: V1 = V2
Constant Temperature or Isothermal Process: T1 = T2 n-1/n P1V1-P2V2
T2 = P2
Constant entropy or Isentropic Process: adiabatic and n-1
T1 P1
reversible, s1 = s2
Polytropic Process: non-adiabatic process n-1
T2 = V1
T1 V2

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Mixtures Involving Ideal Gases PURE SUBSTANCE

Consider a mixture of three gases, a, b and c at a pressure P and
a temperature T, and having a volume V. Definition: A pure substance is a working substance that has a
homogeneous and invariable chemical composition even though there
1. Mass or Gravimetric Analysis: is a change of phase.
m T = ma + m b + mc
Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor
m a + mb + mc = 1 Saturation temperature – the temperature at which vaporization
m T mT mT takes place at a given pressure, this pressure being called the saturation
pressure for the given temperature
2. Volumetric or Moral Analysis:
V = Va + Vb + Vc
Va + Vb + Vc = 1 Saturated Vapor
V V V

Va = volume that gas a would occupy at pressure P and

temperature T Saturated Liquid
Vb = volume that gas b would occupy at pressure P and
temperature T
Vc = volume that gas c would occupy at pressure P and
temperature T Examples of saturation temperature at various pressures for three
common pure substances:
3. Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures:
P = Pa + Pb + Pc Saturation Temperature
Pa = partial pressure of gas a, that is, the pressure that gas a Pressure Water Ammonia Freon-12
will exert if it alone occupies the volume occupied by the 50 KPa 81.33ºC -46.73ºC -45.19ºC
mixture, etc. 101.325 KPa 100ºC -33.52ºC -29.79ºC
500 KPa 151.86ºC 4.08ºC 15.59ºC
Pa = (Va/V)P Pb = (Vb/V)P Pc = (Vc/V)P
Properties of saturated liquid and saturated vapor at various
4. Specific Heat of the Mixture: temperatures and pressure are found in tables (Table 1 and Table 2 for
Cp = ma/mt(Cpa) + mb/mt(Cpb) + mc/mt(Cpc) steam) with the following typical construction:
Cv = ma/mt(Cva) + mb/mt(Cvb) + mc/mt(Cvc) Specific Internal
Volume Energy Enthalpy Entropy
Temp. Press. vf vg uf ufg ug hf hfg hg sf sfg sg
vfg = vg - vf hfg = hg - hf
ufg = ug - uf sfg = sg - sf

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Mixture The T-S Diagram of a Pure Substance

x = quality or dryness factor Critical Point
= ratio of mass of saturated vapor to the total mass of the T
mixture, expressed in decimal or percent
1-x = wetness Subcooled Superheated
Liquid Region Vapor Region
Properties of Mixture:
Saturated Line Saturated
v = vf + x vfg h = hf + x hfg Vapor Line
u = uf + x ufg s = sf + x sfg Mixture
Region
Since a mixture consists of saturated vapor and saturated S
liquid, the properties of each component are also found in the
saturated tables. The Mollier (h-s) Diagram of Steam is usually useful in determining
the final enthalpy of steam after an isentropic process.
Superheated vapor – vapor whose temperature is higher than the
saturation temperature at the given pressure
Processes Involving Pure Substance
Degrees Superheat = difference between actual temperature 1. Isobaric or constant pressure process: P1 = P2
and saturation temperature 2. Isothermal or constant temperature process: T1 = T2
Evaporation and condensation processes occur at constant
Properties of superheated steam are found in Table 3. pressure and constant temperature.
3. Isovolumic or constant volume process: V1 = V2
Subcooled or Compressed Liquid – liquid whose temperature is lower For constant mass: V1 = V2
than the saturation temperature at the given pressure (or liquid whose If the final sate is a mixture: V1 = (vf + x vfg)2
pressure is higher than the saturation pressure at the given 4. Isentropic or constant entropy process: s1 = s2
temperature) Isentropic process is reversible (no friction loss) and
adiabatic (no heat loss, that is, completely insukated
Degrees Subcooling = difference between saturation system).
temperature and actual temperature) If the final state is a mixture: s1 = (sf + x sfg)2
Properties of compressed liquid water are found in Table 4. 5. Throttling or isenthalpic (constant enthalpy) process: h1 = h2
If the final state is a mixture: h1 = (hf + x hfg)2
If the initial state is a mixture, such as in steam calorimeter:
(hf + x hfg)1 = h2

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Process Heat Added or Rejected 1

Constant Pressure m cp (T2 – T1)
Heating or Cooling W
of Liquid For water:
cp = 4.187 kJ/kg-K QA
2
Evaporation or m (hfg)
Condensation (latent heat) QR

Constant Volume m (u2 – u1) 4 3

Constant Entropy m (h2 – h1) QA = T1 (S1 – S4)

(Isentropic) QR = T2 (S2 – S3) = T2 (S1 – S4)
W = QA – QR = T1 (S1-S4) – T2 (S1-S4)
Constant Enthalpy 0
(Throttling) nT = W/QA = T1 (S1 – S4) – T2 (S1 – S4) = T1-T2
T1(S1-S4) T1
THE CARNOT CYCLE
T Basic Working Cycles for Various Applications

T1 = T4 4 1 Application Basic Working Cycle

Steam Power Plant Rankine Cycle

T2 = T3 3 2 Spark-Ignition Otto Cycle

(Gasoline) Engine

Combustion-Ignition Diesel Cycle

S3 = S4 S1 = S2 (Diesel Engine)

Gas Turbine Brayton Cycle

Refrigeration System Refrigeration Cycle

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