- Insights By Rohit

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ELECTRICITY
Electric charge : It is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force
when placed in an electromagnetic field.

There are two types of electric charges: positive and negative. Like charges repel and
unlike attract.

SI unit of charge is Coulomb (C).

Electric circuit : A continuous and closed path of an electric current is called an electric
circuit.
Electric current : Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charges.

If a net charge Q, flows across any cross-section of a conductor in time t, then the
current I, through the cross- section is

I=Q/t.

SI unit of electric current is Ampere (A).

1 Ampere : It is the flow of electric charges through a surface at the rate of one coulomb per
second, i.e if I coulomb of electric charge cross through a cross section for 1 second, it
would be equal to 1 ampere.

1 ampere = 1C/ 1 S

An instrument called ammeter measures electric current in a circuit. It is always

connected in series in a circuit through which the current is to be measured.

Electric Potential and Potential difference

Electric field : It is the region or space surrounding the charge where another charge
experiences a force of attraction or repulsion depending upon the nature of charge.

Electric potential difference between two points in an electric circuit carrying current is
defined as the work done to move a unit charge from one point to the other.

Potential difference (V) between two points = Work done (W)/Charge (Q)

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V = W/Q.

The SI unit of electric potential difference is volt (V)

One Volt : It is the potential difference between two points in a current carrying conductor
when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1 coulomb from one point to the other.

1 volt = 1 joule / 1 coulomb

1 V = 1 J C–1

The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called the voltmeter. The
voltmeter is always connected in parallel across the points between which the potential
difference is to be measured.

OHM’S LAW

Ohm’s Law states that the potential difference across the ends of a metallic wire is
directly proportional to the electric current flowing through it, provided its temperature
remains the same.

Mathematical expression: I ∝ V or V ∝ I
V/I = constant = R or V = IR

Where R is a constant for the given metallic wire at a given temperature and is called its
resistance.

Resistance is the property of a conductor to resist the flow of charges through it.
SI unit is ohm ( Ω ).

1 Ohm: If the potential difference across the two ends of a conductor is 1 V and the current
through it is 1 A, then the resistance R, of the conductor is 1 Ω.

1 ohm = 1 volt/1 ampere.

FACTORS ON WHICH THE RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR DEPENDS ARE:

1) Length of the conductor.

R∝L -------- (1)
2) Area of cross-section of conductor.
R ∝ 1/A -------- (2)

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3)Nature of material.

R ∝ L/A

R = ρL/A -------- (3)

where ρ (rho) is a constant of proportionality called the electrical resistivity of the

material of the conductor. The SI unit of resistivity is Ω m.

Electrical resistivity is a characteristic property of the material. It does not depend on

the length or thickness of wire.

From (3)

ρ = RA/L

If L = 1m, A = 1m ², then ρ = R.

The electrical resistivity / specific resistance of the material is defined as the resistance
offered by a metallic wire having a unit length and a unit area of cross-section.

A. Will current flow more easily through a thick wire or a thin wire of the same
material, when connected to the same source. why ?
Ans : Resistance is indirectly proportional to the area of cross section, thus current flows
easily through a thick wire compared to a thin wire of the same material.

A. Why are coils of electric toasters and electric irons made of an alloy rather than a
pure metal ?
Ans : The melting point and resistivity of an alloy is much higher than that of a pure
metal. An alloy does not undergo oxidation easily even at high temperature.

Combination of Resistors

In electrical gadgets, we need to connect two or more resistors. Various resistors may be
connected with one another to form a network. The resistors may be connected in the
following two ways :
a. In series
b. In parallel

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Series combination of resistors:

Two or more resistors are said to be connected in series if they are connected one after
the other such that the same current flows in one path through all the resistors when
some potential difference is applied across the combination.

Derive an equation for the equivalent resistance of three resistors connected in

series.

As shown in the figure, consider three resistors R1, R2and R3 connected in series.
Suppose a current I flows through the circuit when a cell of V volt is connected across
the combination. If V1,V2 and V3 be the potential differences across the resistors R1,R2
and R3 respectively, then

Vtotal = V1+ V2+ V3 --------- (1)

Since the current flowing through all the resistors is same in series combination,
By Ohm’s law, the potential differences across the three resistors will be

V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3

Eqn (1) becomes Vtotal = IR1+ IR2+ IR3

Vtotal = I (R1+ R2+ R3) ----------- (2)

If Rtotal be the equivalent resistance of the series combination, then

Vtotal = IRtotal ------------ (3)

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From eqns (2) and (3), we get

IRtotal = I (R1+ R2+ R3)

Rtotal = R1+ R2+ R3

Hence, when several resistors are joined in series, the resistance of the combination Rtotal
equals the sum of their individual resistances, R1, R2, R3, and is thus greater than any
individual resistance.

The following are the characteristics of the series circuit :

a) Current through each resistance is same.

b) Total voltage across the combination = sum of the voltage drops across each resistor.

c) Equivalent resistance = sum of the individual resistances.

d) Equivalent resistance is larger than the largest individual resistance.

Parallel combination of resistors:

If a number of resistors are connected in between two common points so that each of
them provides a separate path for current, then they are said to be connected in parallel.

Derive an equation for the equivalent resistance of three resistors connected in

parallel

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As shown in the figure, consider three resistors R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel.
Suppose a current I flows through the circuit when a cell of voltage V is connected
across the combination. The current I at point A is divided into three parts I1, I2 and I3
through the resistors R1, R2 and R3 respectively. These three parts recombine at point B
to
give same current I.

I = I1+ I2+ I3

As all the three resistors have been connected between the same two points A and B
in parallel, voltage V across each of them is same.
By Ohm’s law,

If RP be equivalent resistance of parallel combination, then,

The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances joined in

parallel is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.

The following are the characteristics of the parallel circuit :

a) Voltage across each resistor is same and is equal to the applied voltage.

b) Total current = sum of the currents through the individual resistances.

c) Reciprocal of equivalent resistance = sum of reciprocals of individual resistances.

Equivalent resistance is less than the smallest individual resistance.

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DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS: SERIES OR PARALLEL

Disadvantages of series circuits for domestic wiring :

• In series circuit, if one electrical appliance stops working, due to some defect, then all
other appliances also stop working.

• In series circuit, all the electrical appliances have only one switch due to which they
cannot turn on or off separately.

• In series circuit, the appliances do not get the same voltage (220 V) as that of the power
supply line because the voltage is shared by all appliances.

• In series connection of electrical appliances, the overall resistances of the circuit

increases too much due to which the current from the power supply is low.

ADVANTAGES OF PARALLEL CIRCUITS IN DOMESTIC WIRING

• In parallel circuits if one electrical appliance stops working due to some defect, then all
other appliances keep working normally.

• In parallel circuits, each electrical appliance has its own switch due to which it can be
turned on or turned off independently, with out affecting other appliances.

• In parallel circuits, each electrical appliances, the overall resistance of the household
circuit is reduced due to which the current from the power supply is high.

• In the parallel connection of electrical appliances, the overall resistance of the

household circuit is reduced due to which the current from the power supply is high .

HEATING EFFECT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

When an electric current is pass through a conductor, heat is produced. This effect is
called heating effect of current.

Cause :When a potential difference is apply across the ends of a conductor, its electron
gets accelerated from negative terminal to positive terminal.
During the cause of their motion, this electron collide frequently against one another and
against the atoms of the conductor. At each collision a part of kinetic energy of the
electron gets converted into heat and this increases the temperature of the conductor.

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Heat produced in a conductor of resistance R on passing current I through it for

time t is H = I2 Rt.

Consider a resistor AB of resistance R connected across a cell of voltage V. suppose a

current I is flowing through it.

The amount of charge that flows from A to B in time t is given by

Q=Ixt {I = Q/t}

Therefore, work done in flowing charge Q from A to B is

W = V x Q = V x It

This energy is spend in overcoming the resistance offered by the resistor. If whole of the
energy appears as heat then the amount of heat produced is

H = VIt = I2 Rt

The above equation represents Joules law of heating. This law states that the amount of
heat produced in a conductor is

• Directly proportional to the square of the current

• Directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor and

• Directly proportional to the time for which the current is pass.

Power : It is defined as the rate at which work is done in maintain an electric current in
an electrical circuit.

Power = Workdone
Time taken

P=W/t ------(1)

W=VIt
substituting in equ 1

P = VI

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Electric power = voltage x current

P = VI = I2R = V2/R
The power is inversely proportional to the resistance.

First Formula of power = P = VI

Second formula for power : P = I²R
Third Fromula P = V²/ R

The S.I unit of power is Watt.

One watt is the power consumed by an electrical device which when operated at a
potential difference of 1 volt carries a current of 1 ampere

1W= 1VA

Practical applications of heating effect of current:

• In electrical heating appliances: Such as electric iron, water heaters and geysers, room
heaters, toasters, hotplates are fitted with heating coils made of high resistance wires
such as nichrome wire

• Electric filament of bulb: This filament is made from a very thin high resistance
tungsten wire. When current flows through this filament, it gets heated up and stats
emitting lights.

• Electric fuse: When large current pass through the circuit, this fuse wire get heated up
and melts away. As a result the circuit is broken and further damage is prevented.

Electrical Energy

Electrical energy = Power x Time

E=Pxt

The electrical energy consumed by an electric appliance depends on two factors :

(i) power rating of the appliance
(ii) time for which the appliance is used.

The SI unit of an electrical energy is Joule.

COMMERCIAL UNIT OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY : KILOWATT-HOUR

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The commercial unit of electrical energy is kilowatt-hour (1kWh)

One kilowatt –hour is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an electrical
appliance having a power rating of 1 kilowatt is used for 1 hour.

Relation between kilowatt-hour and joule

1 kilowatt-hour = 1kW x 1 hour

1 kilowatt-hour = 1000 W x 3600 seconds
1 kilowatt-hour = 36 x 105 W seconds
1 kilowatt-hour = 3.6 x 106 J

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