Magnetic flux :- the total number of magnetic lines of force crossing the surface area placed in magnetic

field is called magnetic flux. It is a scalar quantity.

Flux through unit area, placed perpendicular to field is magnetic field intensity B.
So flux through area A is  = component of magnetic field  to surface  area

Flux  = B cos A   = B A cos    B. A
(1) When surface is parallel to the field  = 90. Flux  = B A cos90 = 0 (minimum)
(2) Area vector  to the field,  = 0. Flux  = B A cos = B A ( maximum )
One Weber: - when surface area of 1 m2 is placed perpendicular to the magnetic field of intensity 1 Tesla,
then the magnetic flux through the area is equal to one Weber. 1 Weber =108 Maxwell (C. G.S. unit)
Electro Magnetic Induction (EMI)-
Electromagnetic Induction (EMI) is the phenomenon of production of electric current (or emf) in a closed
coil, when the magnetic flux linked with the coil is changed. The current (or emf) so developed in the ckt, is
known as induced current (or induced emf).The induced current (or emf) lasts so long as the change in
magnetic flux continues. Michael Faraday in 1831 discovered the EMI phenomena.
Faraday & Henary Experiments Based On EMI-
A). Current Inducted By A Magnet:
The apparatus used by Faraday & Henry is shown in the figure, which consists of a circular insulated wire
connected to a sensitive galvanometer (G) & a bar magnet (NS) which can be moved w.r.t. the coil.
Faraday’s & Henry observed that:
1. When the bar magnet moves towards the coil, the
galvanometer shows sudden deflection in one direction. The
deflection shows the current is induced in the coil.
2. When the bar magnet moves away from the coil (or by
changing the polarity of bar magnet), galvanometer again shows
the deflection in opposite direction. Thus, there is a flow of
current in opposite direction.
3.The deflection in the galvanometer lasts so long as relative motion between the coil & the magnet
continues. There is no deflection when the bar magnet in held stationary.

(B).Current Induced by Steady Current:

The apparatus used is shown in the figure below, which
consists of two coils having some turns. The first coil is
connected to a sensitive galvanometer & the other coil is
connected to a key & a battery from which a steady current is
flowing across the coil. Various conclusions are there.
1.When coil ‘B’ is moved towards the coil ‘A’, the
galvanometer shows a deflection. This indicates that electric
current is induced in the first coil.
2.When coil ‘B’ is moved away from coil ‘A’, the galvanometer again shows a deflection in the opposite
direction, indicating induced current is developed in the first coil.
3.The deflection lasts so long as there is relative motion between
the two coils. There is no deflection when the coil is stationary.
C). Current Induced by Changing Current:
In that experiment, figure shows that coil 1 is connected to a
battery & a key . Coil 2 is connected to a sensitive galvanometer
‘G’ & held stationary but close the coil 1. Faraday’s & Henry observed that
1.When key ‘k’ is closed, galvanometer in the coil ‘2’ shows a momentary deflection, indicating that current
is induced in the coil ‘2’. The pointer in the galvanometer, however, returns to zero immediately.
2.When the key ‘k’ is kept pressed continuously, there is no deflection in the galvanometer.
3.When the key is released, the galvanometer again shows a momentary deflection ,but in the opposite
direction .here also , the pointer in the galvanometer returns to zero immediately.
Cause of Induced Emf - From all these experiments, we can conclude that, whenever magnetic flux
linked with the coil changes, an induced emf (or current) is developed in the coil, which is the basic cause of
induced emf. The induced current (or emf) lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux continues.

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

A). Faraday’s 1st Law: Whenever the magnetic flux (ф) or magnetic lines of force linked with the
circuit or coil changes (increases or decreases),an induced emf is produced in the coil. The induced emf lasts
so long as the change in magnetic flux continues.
nd
B). Faraday’s 2 Law: The emf induced in coil is directly proportion to the rate of change of magnetic
flux linked with the coil.
𝑑 𝑑
𝑒∝ 𝑜𝑟 𝑒 = 𝑘 … … … (1) where ‘k’ is a constant, k=1 for all systems.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅
𝑒=− … … . . (2)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅
𝑒 = −𝑁 𝑑𝑡 for N no. of turns
[Here –ve sign is taken because induced emf always opposes any change in the magnetic flux]

Fleming Right Hand Rule: This is used to find the direction of induced emf or induced current in a
conductor moving in a magnetic field. According to this Rule, “if we stretch our first finger,middle &
thumb of our right hand in mutually perpendicular direction such that the first finger point out the direction
of magnetic field, the middle finger points out the direction of induced current then thumb points out the
motion of a conductor.” (Father –Mother –children)
Lenz’s Law
According to this law,”the induced current
produced in a ckt always as flows in such a direction that it
opposes the changes in magnetic flux which is responsible for its
production .”
A coil connected with a sensitive galvanometer.
When N- pole of a magnet moves towards the
coil, the magnetic flux linked with the coil increases. With that the
galvanometer shows a deflection indicating that the current
induced in the coil is in the anticlockwise direction. With that upper face of the coil behaves as North.
Hence, it opposes the inward motion of N- pole of magnet.
Similarly, When N- pole of a magnet in moved away from the coil, the magnetic
flux linked with the coil decreases. With that the galvanometer shows a deflection indicating that the current
induced in the coil is in the clockwise direction. With that upper face of the coil behaves as South. Hence, it
also opposes the outward motion ( or decreasing magnetic flux ) of a bar magnet.
Here, induced current always opposes the change which produces it.
Lenz’s Law in accordance with the law of conservation of energy:
From the above experiment set up, one can conclude that
a). When N- pole of a magnet is moved towards the coil, the upper face of the coil acquires North polarity.
Therefore, work has to be done against the force of repulsion.
b). When N- pole of a magnet is moved away, the upper face of the coil acquires South polarity. Therefore,
work has to be done against the force of attraction.
Hence, energy remains conserved during the force of attraction
and repulsion. Hence. Lenz’s law obeys the law of conservation of energy.

Motional E.M.F in case of a rectangular loop:

An induced emf is produced by changing the
area of a closed circuit by the movement of a circuit through a steady
magnetic field is known as Motional emf.
Proof: Let us consider a closed circuit ABCD. Let a uniform magnetic
⃗ lies in the region PQRS is applied across the coil ABCD. Here
field 𝐵
the direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil.
Let us consider that at any time ‘t’ the part BA’ = CD’ = x (say) of the
coil inside the magnetic field .
Area = BC × CD’ = 𝑙 x ……..(1)
Hence, magnetic flux linked with the coil at time ‘t’ is

∅ = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐵𝑙𝑥 … … … (2)
The induced emf in the ckt

𝑑∅ 𝑑(𝐵𝑙𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑒=− = = −𝐵𝑙 = −𝐵𝑙𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 … . . (3) in magnitude form
𝑒 𝐵𝑙𝑣
Also, the induced current is given 𝐼= = Where R is being resistance.
𝑅 𝑅
(a) EMF in a rotating conducting rod : A conducting rod of length l whose one end is fixed, is rotated
about the axis passing through it’s fixed end and perpendicular to it’s length with     

constant angular velocity . Magnetic field (B) is perpendicular to the plane of paper.     

𝑑 𝑑𝐴 𝜋𝑙2      
Emf induces across the ends of the rod e = = 𝐵 𝑑𝑡  𝑒= 𝐵 Q P
𝑑𝑡 𝑇   
l  

𝜋𝑙2 1 2 Bl 
2
𝑒 = 𝐵 2𝜋/𝜔  e Bl   Bl 2 v      

2 T
where v = frequency (revolution per sec) and T = Time period.
(b) Induced current : If conducting rod moves on two and electrical power parallel conducting rails. As
e Bvl
shown in following figure then induced current i  ;i
R R
(c) Magnetic force on conductor : When a current carrying conductor moves in a magnetic field, it
B 2 vl 2
experiences a force Fm  Bil 
R
 (d) Power dissipiated in moving the conductor : For uniform motion of rod PQ, the rate of doing
mechanical work by external agent or mech. Power delivered by external source is given as –
dW B 2 vl 2 B2v2l2
Pmech  Pext   Fext  V  v  Pmech 
dt R R
(e) Electrical power dissipiated in resistance or Rate of heat dissipiation across resistance :
2
H  Bvl  B2v2l2
Pthermal   i2 R    .R ; Pthermal 
t  R  R
(It is clear that Pmech .  Pthermal which is consistent with the principle of conservation of energy.)

Eddy Currents:
These currents are very first introduced by Foucault in 1895 & hence known as Foucault current .Foucault
found that, ’’Whenever magnetic flux liked with a metallic conductor changes, the induced currents are set
up in the conductor in the form of a closed loops ’’. These currents are look like eddies or whirlpools &
likewise are known as eddy currents. Mathematically, induced currents i.e., eddy current (I ) is
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑐𝑢𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑓 𝑒 −𝑑Φ
𝐼= = =
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
Thus eddy currents are the currents induced in a conductor, when placed in changing magnetic field.
Experimental Demonstration of Eddy Currents:
(a). The Jumping Disc:
Introduce a soft iron core inside a solenoid and connect it to the source of alternating emf. Place a metallic
disc over the cross sectional face of the soft iron core . As the circuit is switched on, the metallic disc is
thrown up into the air.
Explanation-As the circuit is switched on the circuit through the solenoid increases .Further , the magnetic
flux linked with the disc also increase from zero to some finite value .Due to the change in magnetic flux,the
induced (eddy) current are produced in the disc & is slighty magnetized. Now according to lenz law the
eddy current set up in the disc acts in such a manner that it opposes the increase in magnetic flux through
it.As a result the disc is thrown away from the soft iron core.
The other reason is that according to Lenz’s law, the eddy current set up inside the disc acts in such a
manner that both the faces of the disc will acquire same polarity (say north). Due to the force of repulsion
between the two faces, the disc jumps upto the some height.
(b). The Damping Effect:
Experiment (1):
Suspend a flat magnetic plate between the pole pieces of an
electromagnet. The metallic plate, when displaced once from its
equilibrium position oscillates freely for a long time in the absence of
magnetic field. However, when the magnetic field is switched on, the
metallic plate comes to rest soon. (This phenomenon is known as
Electromagnetic damping).
Explanation:- When a metallic plate is in its equilibrium position, the
magnetic flux linked with the plate is maximum. When it is displaced
towards any one of the extreme position, area of the plate in the field decrease. Therefore magnetic flux
linked with the plate decreases. Now According to Lenz’s law, eddy currents are developed in the plate
which oppose the decrease in flux and also oppose the motion of the plate which is towards the extreme
position.
Similarly when the plate returns from the extreme position to mean
position, area of the plate increases. Therefore magnetic flux linked with the plate also increases.According
to Lenz’s law, eddy currents are developed in the plate which opposes the increase in flux and also oppose
the motion of the plate which is towards the mean position.
Experiment (2):
When metallic plate having narrow slots is made to oscillate
between pole pieces of an electromagnet, the damping effect is
there but it is much smaller as compared to the case when there
were no slots in metallic plate i.e., this time metallic plate swings
much more freely.

Explanation:- This is due to the fact that for a closed loop of same area, the electrons have to cover much
larger path in this case. Due to that the electron experiences more resistance & hence eddy current produced
are smaller. Hence we have a less damping effect in that case. This method can be used to reduced eddy
currents.
Applications of eddy currents:
(1).Dead beat galvanometer:
The oscillations of a moving coil galvanometer generally take a long time to die out . But by winding its coil
on a metallic frame made of copper or aluminium , the galvanometer can be made dead beat . It is becauae ,
due to the production of eddy currents in the metallic frame , the coil of galvanometer comes to rest very
soon.
(2).Speedometer:
Speedomter is a device used to measure the instantaneous speed of a vehicle. In a speedometer, a small
magnet is attached to the axle of the wheel .This magnet is surrounded by an aluminium drum and it
rotaes according to the speed of the vehicle inside the aluminium drum . Due to rotation of the magnet ,
magnetic flux linked with the aluminium drum changes and hence eddy currents are produced in it . A
pointer attached to the drum is deflected in the direction of the rotation of the drum. This speed is
measured which corresponds to the deflection of the pointer.

Disadvantages/undesirable effect of eddy currents:

(1). The generation of eddy current in a metallic block leads to the loss of electrical energy in the form of
heat.
(2). The heat produced due to eddy currents breaks the insulation used in electrical machine or device.
(3). The metallic cores are used in electrical devices like transformer, dynamo etc. Due to changing magnetic
field, large eddy currents are produced in the core which causes large amount of heat in the core & also
causes defect in the devices. It results into the loss of energy.
How to minimize eddy currents:
(a). The eddy currents produced in the core of a transformer are reduced (minimized) by making use of a
laminated iron core.
(b). The eddy currents can also be minimized by making slots in a metallic frame in case of the oscillations
of the metallic plate between the pole pieces of an electromagnet.
Self-induction :
The property of coil which opposes the growth and decay of the current is called self induction or self-
induction is the phenomenon of production of induced emf in coil due to change of current in the same
coil.
Experimental verification: Let us consider a coil which is connected to a battery & a key (K). When
the key K is closed, the current in the coil starts increasing & due to this the magnetic field ( magnetic
flux) linked with coil also increase. As a result of this,induced emf produced in the coil. Then, according
 to Lenz’s law the direction of induced emf is such that it opposes the growth of current in the circuit.
In the same way, when key K is open, the direction of induced emf is such that it opposes the decay, of
current in the circuit.
Coeficient of self induction:
It is found that the magnetic flux linked with the coil at any instant is directly proportional to the
current passing through it .

Mathematically ∅∝𝐼
∅ = 𝐿𝐼 …….(1)
Where L = constant of proportionality, known as coefficient of self inductance.

−𝑑∅
As we known that e=
𝑑𝑡
−𝑑 𝑑𝐼
So e= (𝐿𝐼) or e = -L …….(2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

This is the required potential difference across L

More about :
∅
The unit of L in S.I. system is Henry.  L= 1 𝑊𝑒𝑏𝑒𝑟
1 Henry = 1 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝐼

Mutual induction :
Mutual induction is the phenomenon of production of induced emf in one coil due to change of current in
the neighbouring coil.
Experimental verification: Let us consider two coils P (primary) & S (secondary) are placed close to
each other. A battery & a key ( K) are connected to the primary coil, while a galvanometer is connected to
the secondary coil.
As soon as the key is pressed, the current in the primary coil
starts growing. As the current grows, the magnetic flux linked
with the coil also starts growing, with that an induced emf is
induced in the secondary coil. Now according to Lenz’s law
the induced current in “S “opposes the increase in current in
P. Similarly when key is open, the induced current in S
would oppose the decrease in current in P by flowing in a
direction opposite to the direction of cell current in P.
Coefficient of mutual induction:
It is found, that magnet flux linked with the coil at any instant is directly
proportional to the current passing through it at .
magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil ∝ current in the primary coil
∅∝𝐼
= MI …….(1)
Where M = constant of proportionality, known as coefficient of mutual inductance.
−𝑑∅
As we know that e=
𝑑𝑡
−𝑑 𝑑𝐼
So e = (𝑀𝐼) or e = -M ……(2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
This is the required potential difference across M.
Note: The unit & dimensional formula of M is also same as that of L.
Self-Induction (L) of a Long solenoid:-
Consider a solenoid of length l and having N no. of turns.
The magnetic field ‘B’ at any point inside a long solenoid
𝜇 𝑁𝐼 𝑁
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑛𝐼 = 0 [∴ 𝑛 = , N = n 𝑙 ] …….(1)
𝑙 𝑙
The magnetic flux linked with each turn of the solenoid
∅ = 𝐵 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼
=> ∅ = 𝐴 ……..(2)
𝑙
The total magnetic flux linked with the solenoid due to N turns
∅= flux through each turn × total no. of turns
𝜇0 𝑁𝐼 𝜇0 𝐼𝐴𝑁2
𝑖. 𝑒. , ∅= 𝐴×𝑁 = … . . (3)
𝑙 𝑙
Self-Induction of solenoid
∅ 𝜇0 𝐴𝑁2
L= = ……(4)
𝐼 𝑙
Factors on which L depend _
(a). The no. of turns of the solenoid.(b). The length of the
solenoid.(c).The area of cross section of the solenoid.(d).Nature of
the material of the core of the solenoid.

Mutual Inductance of Two Long Solenoid :( Co-Axial)

Let us consider two solenoids S1 & S2 such that the solenoid S2 completely surrounds the solenoid S1. Let
each solenoid has almost same length & same area of cross section (A). N1 & N2 are the total no. of turns of
solenoid S1 & S2 respectively.
No. of turns per unit length of solenoid S1 & S2
𝑁1 𝑁
n1= ; n2 = 𝑙2 ......... (1)
𝑙
. Then the magnetic field inside the solenoid ‘S1’
𝜇 𝑁
B1= 𝜇0 n1I1 = 0 1 I1 ( I1= current flowing through the solenoid S1)
𝑙
Hence magnetic flux linked with each turn of the solenoid S2
𝜇0 𝑁1 I1 A
=B1×Area of each turn =B1×A =
𝑙
The total magnetic flux linked with the N2 turns of the solenoid S2
𝜇0 𝑁1 I1 A 𝜇0 𝑁2 𝑁1 I1 A
Φ2= N2 (B1×A) = × N2 =
𝑙 𝑙
Φ2 𝜇0 𝑁2 𝑁1 A
Mutual inductance of coil S2 M12 = =
𝐼1 𝑙
(Φ=MI)
𝜇 𝑁 𝑁 A
Similarly , Mutual inductance of coil S1 M21 = 0 1𝑙 2
𝜇 𝑁 𝑁 A
Clearly M12 = M21 = M, Hence M = 0 1𝑙 2
Factors on which value of mutual inductance depends:
(a).Geometry of two coils i.e. size, shapes & no. of turns of the coils.(b).Nature of the material on which the
two coils are wound.(c).Distance between the two coils.
Self –inductance of combination of coils:
A) Coils in series:
Let us consider two coils of inductance L1 & L2 are connected in series.
Also let e1 & e2 be the pot. diff. across the two coils.
The total pot. diff. across point A & B A
𝑑𝐼
E s = e1 + e2 [ e = -L ]
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼
-Ls = -L1 - L2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
or Ls = L1 + L2 Here Ls = L1 + L2 = net inductance of two coils in series.
B) Coils in parallel
When the coils are in parallel, the net current flowing through the coil is
I= I1+I2 ….(1) diff. eqn (1) w.r.t time‘t’
𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝐼 𝑒 A
= 1+ 2 [ e =- L => = - ] I
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿
e 𝑒 𝑒 I
- = –
𝐿𝑃 𝐿1 𝐿2
1 1 1 𝐿 𝐿
= + Or LP = 1 2
𝐿𝑃 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿1 +𝐿2
A.C. Generator (Dynamo)-
A device which is used to generate alternating current known as A.C
generator. In this device, mechanical energy is converted into electric
energy.
Principle: It is based upon the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. Acc. to which an induced emf
is produced in the ckt whenever a magnetic flux linked with the coil changes.
Conustruction: The various parts of a dynamo are
1.Armature coil: Armature coil ABCD consists of large no. of turns of
insulated copper wire wound over a laminated soft iron cylindrical core.
The coil can be rotated about the central axis.
2.Slip Rings: The two ends of an armature coil are connected to two
hollow metallic rings S1 & S2 . These two rings rotate with the rotation of
the axis.
3.Field Magnets: N & S are the pole pieces of strong electromagnets in
which the armature coil is rotated. Here axis of rotation of the coil is perpendicular to magnetic field lines.
4.Brushes: B1 & B2 are two flexing & fixed carbon rods. The purpose of the brushes is to pass current from
the armature coil easily through the Resistance R.

Working:
The Armature coil is rotated in the magnetic field with the help of some
external force, angle between the field & normal of the coil changes
continuously. Therefore, magnetic flux, linked with the coil changes. An
induced emf is produced in the coil.
Let us suppose that before half-rotation, suppose current induced in AB is
from A to B & in CD from C to D. During the second half rotation , the
direction of current is reversed i.e., current induced in AB is from B to A in
CD, it is from D to C. This process is repeated. Hence the current induced is alternating in nature.
Theory:-
In case of rectangular coil, the magnetic flux linked with a coil
ɵ
𝛷 = NBACos ɵ or 𝛷 = NBACos 𝑤𝑡 ......... (1) [w = ] Where N= no of turns in the coil;
𝑡
According to the principle of EMI, an induced emf is produced in the ckt, whenever a magnetic flux
linked with the coil changes.
𝑑𝛷 𝑑
E=- =- (NBACos 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
= -NBA (cos 𝜔𝑡) = -NBA (− sin 𝜔𝑡)𝑤
𝑑𝑡
= NBA𝑊 sin 𝜔𝑡 …….(2)
The induced emf will be maximum when ɵ = 𝜔𝑡=90° i.e. Emax=E0 = NBAW
n
Putting this value in eq (2), we have
E = E0 sin 𝜔𝑡
E E sin 𝜔𝑡
Also I= or I = 0
𝑅 𝑅
E0
I = I0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Where I0 = peak value of current
𝑅
.