Can you recall?

1. What is the force experienced by a moving charge in a magnetic field?

2. What is the torque experienced by a current carrying loop kept in a magnetic field?

3. What is the magnetic dipole moment of a current carrying coil?

4. What is the flux of a vector field through a given area?

 12.1 Introduction

The torque experienced by a current carrying loop of magnetic dipole moment M in a magnetic field
is given as,
𝜏 = MBsin⁡𝛼 = IA × Bsin⁡𝛼

The magnetic dipole moment of a current carrying coil is given by

M = nIA

The magnetic flux of a vector field through a given area (A) is given as,
𝜙 = BA
 The experimental observations of Faraday
1. When a magnet approaches a closed circuit consisting of a coil it produces a current in it. This
current is known as induced current.
2. When the magnet is taken away from the closed circuit a current is again produced but in the
opposite direction with respect to that in experiment (i).
3. If instead of the magnet, the coil is moved towards the magnet or away from it, an induced current is
produced in the coil (i.e., in the closed circuit).
 The experimental observations of Faraday
4. If the polarity of approaching or receding magnet is changed the direction of induced current in the coil is
also changed.
5. The magnitude of induced current depends on the relative speed of the coil with respect to magnet. It also
depends upon the number of turns in the coil.
6. The induced current exists so long as there is a relative motion between the coil and magnet.
 The experimental observations of Faraday

7. Instead of a magnet and a closed circuit, two coils with their planes facing each other also produce similar
effects as mentioned above in experiments from (i) to (vi).
One coil is connected in series with a battery, rheostat and key while the ends of the other coil are connected to
a galvanometer (G).
The coil which consists of a source of emf (a battery) is termed as primary coil while the other as secondary coil.
 The experimental observations of Faraday

Observations Made from two coils

(i) When the circuit in the primary coil is closed or broken, a momentary deflection is produced in the galvanometer at
the time of make or break. When the circuit is closed or broken the directions of deflection in the galvanometer are
opposite to each other.

(ii) When there is a relative motion between the two coils (with their circuits closed),
an induced current is produced in the secondary coil but it exists so long as there is a relative motion between the coils.
 The experimental observations of Faraday
Observations Made from two coils
(iii)Whenever the current in the primary coil is changed (either increased or decreased)
by sliding the rheostat-jockey, a deflection is produced in the galvanometer. This indicates the presence of
induced current. The induced current exists so long as there is a change of current in the primary coil.
The above observations indicate that so long as there is a change of magnetic flux
(produced either by means of a magnet or by a current carrying coil) inside a coil, an induced emf is produced.
The direction of induced emf reverses if instead of increasing the flux, the flux is decreased or vice versa.
 12.2 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Q. What is electromagnetic induction? [July 16]

The phenomenon of producing an induced e.m.f in a conductor or conducting

coil due to changing magnetic flux is called electromagnetic induction.
 12.2 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Q. State Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction. [Oct 08, Mar 13]

First law: Whenever there is a change of magnetic flux in a closed circuit, an induced emf is produced in
the circuit. Also, if a conductor cuts the lines of magnetic field, an e.mf. is induced between its ends.

This law is a qualitative law as it only indicates the characteristics of induced emf.
 12.2 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

Second law: The magnitude of induced emf produced in the circuit is directly proportional to the rate of
change of magnetic flux linked with the circuit. This law is known as quantitative law as it gives the magnitude
of induced emf.
 12.3 Lenz's Law
Q. State Lenz's law. [Mar 13]
Statement: The direction of induced current in a circuit is such that the magnetic field produced
by the induced current opposes the change in the magnetic flux that induces the current. The
direction of induced emf is the same as that of induced current.
 Applications of Lenz's law

12.3.1 Motion of a Magnet Toward a Loop

• As the magnet is moved toward the loop, a current is induced in the loop.
• The induced current in the loop produces a magnetic dipole.
• The dipole is oriented in such a way that it opposes the motion of the magnet.
• Thus the loop's north pole must face the approaching north pole of the magnet so as to repel it.
• The curled right-hand (RH) rule for magnetic dipole or magnetic field will provide the direction of induced current
in the loop.
• The induced current in the loop will be in counter-clockwise direction

• If the magnet is pulled away from the loop, a current will again be induced in the loop in such a way that the
loop will have a south pole facing the retreating north pole and will oppose the retreat by attracting it.
• The induced current in the loop will now flow in clockwise direction.
 12.3.2 Energy Conservation in Lenz's Law

Q. Explain Lenz's law in the light of principle of conservation of energy.

The cause of the induced current may be either

(i) the motion of a conductor (wire) in a magnetic field or
(ii) the change of magnetic flux through a stationary circuit.

In the first case, the direction of induced current in the moving conductor (wire) is such that the direction of
the thrust exerted on the conductor (wire) by the magnetic field is opposite to the direction of its motion and
thus opposes the motion of the conductor.
 12.3.2 Energy Conservation in Lenz's Law

In the second case, the current sets up a magnetic field of its own which within the area bounded by the circuit is

(a) opposite to the original magnetic field if this field is increasing; but

(b) in the same direction as the original field, if the field is decreasing.

Thus it is the 'change in flux' through the circuit (not the flux itself), which is opposed by the induced current.
 12.3.2 Energy Conservation in Lenz's Law

Lenz's law follows directly from the conservation of energy.

• If an induced current flows in a circuit in such a direction that it helps the cause that produces it, then we will
soon find that the induced current and the magnetic flux penetrating the loop would lead to an infinite growth.
• The induced current once started flowing in the loop would keep increasing indefinitely producing joule heating
at no extra cost and thus be self-sustaining (perpetual motion machine).
• This will violate the law of conservation of energy.
• We thus see that Lenz's law is a necessary consequence of the law of conservation of energy.
 12.3.2 Energy Conservation in Lenz's Law

The opposing sense of the induced current is one manifestation of a general statement of Lenz's law:
"Every effect of induction acts in opposition to the cause that produces it"
• In order to have an induced current, we must have a closed circuit.
• If a conductor is not forming a closed circuit we mentally construct a circuit between the two ends of the
conductor/ wire and use Lenz's law to determine the direction of induced current.
• Then the polarity of the ends of the open-circuited conductor can be found easily.
 12.3.3 Lenz's Law and Faraday's Law
Q. Explain how Lenz's law is incorporated in Faraday's law?
 12.4 Flux of the Field
Q. Prove that magnetic flux (𝜙) varies with a change in area (S) with respect to time even if the magnetic
field (𝐵) remains constant.
 12.5 Motional Electromotive Force
a) Translational motion of a conductor
Q. Derive an expression for emf (e) generated in a conductor of length (𝐼) moving
in uniform magnetic field (B) with uniform velocity (v) along x-axis. [Mar 22]
 12.5 Motional Electromotive Force
b) Motional emf in a rotating bar
Q. Derive on expression for the total emf induced in a conducting rotating rod.
 12.6 Induced emf in a Stationary Coil in a Changing Magnetic Field
Q. For a magnet-coil system, show that the peak induced emfe0 is directly proportional to angular amplitude and
inversely proportional to time period (T).⁡
Construction
i. In a magnet-coil system, a permanent bar magnet is mounted on an arc of a semicircle of radius 50⁡cm.
ii. The arc is a part of a rigid frame of aluminium and is suspended at the centre so that the whole system can
oscillate freely in its plane.

iii. A coil of about 10,000 turns of copper wire loop the are so that the bar magnet can pass through the coil freely.
Construction
iv. When the magnet moves through the coil, the magnetic flux through the coil changes.
v. In order to measure the induced emf, a capacitor (C) and diode (D) are connected across the coil.
vi. The induced emf produced in the coil is used for charging a capacitor through a diode. The voltage developed
across the capacitor is measured.
vii. The time constant (RC) being larger than the time during which the emf in the coil is generated, the capacitor
requires a few oscillations to change to the peak value which is measured by the ammeter (mA).
Working:
i. As the magnet, kept in the middle of the arc, starts far away from the coil, moves through it and recedes, the
magnetic field (magnetic flux) through the coil changes from a small value, increases to its maximum and
becomes small again thus inducing an emf.

ii. The speed of the magnet is largest when it approaches the coil (placed at the mean position of the oscillation).
iii. Thus the magnetic field changes quite slowly with time when the magnet is far away and changes rapidly
when it approaches the coil.
iv. The variation of magnetic field B - (at the coil in mean position) with time is shown in figure (c).
Working:

vii. Thus, one 'negative' and 'positive' occurs during just half a cycle of motion of the magnet. During the return
swing, the negative pulse is repeated first followed by the positive pulse.

viii. The diode will conduct only during the 'positive' pulse. At the first half swing, the capacitor will charge up
to a potential 𝑒1 . During the next half swing, the diode will be cut off until 'positive' pulse is produced and
then the capacitor will charge upto a slightly higher potential 𝑒2 . This will continue for a few oscillations till
the capacitor charges upto its peak value e0 by the voltage/ emf pulse. At this stage, ammeter will show no kick
(further increase) in the current of the circuit.
 12.7 Generators
Q. Explain the working of an electric generator and also derive a expression for the induced emf.

i. The basic construction of an electric generator is the same as that of a motor.

ii. In this case, the armature is turned by some external agency/torque.

iii. As the conductor wires cut across the magnetic lines of force, an induced emf (𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣) is produced across the
terminals of the commutator. The induced e.m.f is found to be proportional to the speed of rotation (𝜔) of the
armature.

iv. Let us consider the working of one conductor of the armature.

 12.7 Generators

iv. Let us consider the working of one conductor of the armature.

v. In position (i), the conductor is moving upward across the lines of force inducing maximum emf.

vi. When the armature reaches in position (ii) the conductor is moving parallel to the field and there is no
induced emf (e = 0).

vii. At position (iii), the same conductor moves down across the lines of force and the induced emf/ current
is directed opposite to that in case of (a).
 12.7 Generators

viii. The graph, plotted between the current flowing in the lamp as a function of the time ( 𝑡 ) shows a
sinusoidally varying current as is shown in fig.
ix. When a coil is rotating with a constant angular velocity 𝜔, the angle between magnetic field 𝐵 and the area
vector 𝐴 of the coil at any instant 𝑡 is 𝜃 = 𝜔t (assuming 𝜃 = 0 at t = 0 ).
𝑥. As the effective area of the coil is changing due to rotation in the magnetic field B, the flux 𝜙B at any time can be
written as,

𝝓𝑹 = 𝐁 ⋅ 𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬⁡𝜽 = 𝐁 ⋅ 𝐀𝐜𝐨𝐬⁡𝝎𝐭
 12.7 Generators

xii. Since the value of sin⁡𝜔𝑡 varies between +1 and −1, the polarity of the emf changes with time. The emf has its
extreme value at 𝜃 = 90∘ and 270∘ as the change in flux is greatest at these points.

xiii. For the purpose of charging a storage battery it is necessary to generate a steady or direct current (DC).

xiv. The reversing action of commutator can be used to generate pulsating DC.

Xv. The commutator acts like a rapid switch which reverses the connections to the armature at just the right
times to match with the reversals in current.
 12.8 Back emf and back torque
Q. Explain the concept of back emf.

When the armature of a DC Motor rotates, then the current-carrying armature windings move
through the magnetic field. So that an emf is induced and the emf which is induced in the armature
winding of the DC motor is called Back Emf.

It is also known as Counter-electromotive force.

It is the electromotive force or "voltage" that opposes the change in current which induced it.
Hence the concept of back emf in DC motor is based on Lenz's law.
According to Lenz's law "When a voltage is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to
Faraday's law, the polarity of the induced voltage is such that it produces a current whose magnetic
field opposes the change which produces it".

It is the consequence of the law of conservation of energy.

 12.9 Induction and Energy Transfer
Q. Show that the work done in pulling a loop through the magnetic field appears as heat energy in the loop.
 12.10 Eddy Currents
Q. What are eddy currents? [Mar 08, Oct 09]

Definition: Eddy currents are circulating currents that are produced in the conductors when the
amount of magnetic flux linked with the conductor changes.
Eddy means a whirl or circular motion of something.
 12.11 Self-Inductance
Q. Explain what is self inductance?
Definition: The production of induced emf, in the circuit (coil) itself, on account of a change in the
current in it, is termed as the phenomenon of self-inductance.
Unit of Inductance
 Definition of L

1. Self-inductance of a circuit is the ratio of magnetic flux (produced due to current in the circuit) linked
with the circuit to the current flowing in it.
The magnetic flux produced per unit current in the circuit is defined as its self inductance
 Definition of L

2. Self-inductance of a circuit is the ratio of induced emf (caused by changing current in the circuit)
produced around the circuit to the rate of change of current in it.
In order words, the induced emf produced around the circuit per unit rate of change of current in it, is
defined as the self-inductance of the circuit.
 Definition of L
3. self-inductance of a circuit is numerically equal to twice the work done in establishing the magnetic flux
associated with unit current in the circuit.
 Inductance of a solenoid
Q. Derive an expression for inductance per unit length near the middle of a long solenoid.
 Inductances in series or parallel
Q. State the relation for total inductance for series and parallel combination of inductors.
 12.12 Energy Stored in a Magnetic Field
Q. Derive an expression for the energy stored in a magnetic field.
 12.13 Energy Density of a Magnetic Field
Q. Derive an expression for energy stored in the magnetic field in terms of induced current. [Mar 23]
 12.14 Mutual Inductance (M)
Q. Explain mutual induction. [Mar 17]
Definition: It is the phenomenon in which a change of current in one coil induces an emf in another coil placed
near it.
The coil in which the current changes is called the primary coil and the coil in which the emf is induced is called
the secondary coil.
 Alternative definitions of mutual inductance
Q. Define mutual inductance.
1. The mutual inductance of two circuits is equal to the magnetic flux linked with one circuit per unit
current in the other circuit.
𝜙21 = MI1 and 𝜙21 = MI2
𝜙21 𝜙12
M= =
I1 I2
2. The mutual inductance 𝑀 of two circuits (or coils) is the magnetic flux 𝜙s linked with the
secondary circuit per unit current 𝐼𝑃 of the primary circuit.
𝜙s
M=
Ip
3. Mutual inductance is defined as the value of induced emf produced in the secondary circuit per
unit rate of change in current in the primary circuit.
From Faraday's law,
𝑑𝜙𝑠 𝑑 𝑑𝐼𝑝
⁡ 𝑒𝑠 = − =− 𝑀𝐼𝑃 = −𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑒𝑠
⁡ or 𝑀 =
𝑑𝐼𝑝 /𝑑𝑡
 Coefficient of coupling between two circuits
Q. Explain coefficient of coupling between two circuits.
The coefficient of coupling (K) is a measure of the portion of flux that reaches coil 2 which is in the vicinity of
coil 1 .
Greater the coefficient of coupling, greater will be the mutual inductance (M).
Inductance of any circuit is proportional to the induced voltage it can develop. This is equally true for mutual
inductance.
 12.15 Transformer
Q. State the principle on which a transformer works. With neat diagram,
explain the construction of a step-up transformer. [ Mar 10,14,16, July 17 ]
Transformer is an electrical device which converts low alternating voltage at high
current to high alternating voltage at low current and vice-versa.
Principle:
It is based on the principle of mutual induction i.e., whenever the magnetic flux linked with
a coil changes, an e.m.f is induced in the neighbouring coil.
 12.15 Transformer
Construction

A transformer consists of two sets of coils primary P and secondary S insulated from each
other. The coil 𝑃 is called the input coil and coil 𝑆 is called the output coil.
The two coils are wound separately on a laminated soft iron core.
 12.15 Transformer
Working
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary coil the current through the coil goes on
changing. Hence, the magnetic flux through the core also changes.
As this changing magnetic flux is linked with both the coils, an e.m.f is induced in each coil.
The amount of the magnetic flux linked with the coil depends upon the number of tums of the coil.
Let, ' 𝜙 ' be the magnetic flux linked per turn with both the coils at certain instant ' 𝑡 '.
Let ' Np and ' NS ' be the number of turns of primary and secondary coil,
𝑁𝑝 𝜙 = magnetic flux linked with the primary coil at certain instant ' 𝑡 '
𝑁𝑆 𝜙 = magnetic flux linked with the secondary coil at certain instant ' t '