2.

13 AIRPOLLUTION
Air pollution occurs in many forms but can generally be thought of asgaseous and particulate
ontaminants that are present in the earth's atmosphere. Gaseous pollutants include sulfur
dioxide (SO,), nitrogen oxides (NO,), ozone (0,). carbon monoxide (CO), volatile organic
compounds (VOC), hydrogen sulfide (H,S), hydrogen fluoride (HF), and various gaseous
forms of metals. These pollutants are emitted from large stationary sources such as fossil
fuel fired power plants, smelters, industrial boilers, petroleum refineries, and manufacturing
facilities as well as from area and mobile sources. They are corosive to various materials
which causes damage to cultural resources, can ause injury to ecosystems and organisms,
aggravate respiratory diseases, and reduce visibility.) %*
Particulates come in both large and small or "fine' solid forms. Large particulates include
Substances such as dust, asbestos fibres and lead. Fine particulates include sulfate (SO,) and
nitrate (NO,). Important sources of particulates are power plants, smelters, mining operations,
and automobiles. Asbestos and lead affect organisms, while sulfates and nitrates not only
cause health problems, but also contribute to aela rain Or acid deposition and a reduction
 Sources of Pollution

Poltutant Emtssioris

Lghtning
Natural
Mobile
Vokano
Car, Trks, Sues
Motorcycoe

Area

Stationary
Fertt

2.13.1 Stationary and Area Source

(A stationary source of air pollution refers to an emission source that does not move, also
known as point source, Stationary sources include factories, power plants, dry cleaners and
degreasing operations The term area source is used to describe many small sources of air
pollution located together whose individual emissions may be below threshold of concern, but
whose collective emissions can be significan Residential wood burners are a good example
of a small source, but when combined with many other small sources, they can contribute
to local and regional air pollution levels. Area source can also be thought of as non-point
Sources, such as construction of housing developments, dry lake beds, and landfills.

2.13.2/Mobile Sources
A mobile source of air pollution refers to a source that is capable of moving under its own
power, in general mobile sources imply "on-road" transportation, which include vehicles such
or "off-road'"
as cars, spot utility vehicles, and buses. In addition, there is also a "non-road"
category that includes gas-powered lawn tools and mowers, farm and construction equipment,
recreational vehicles, boats, planes, and trains.
2.13,3 Agricultural Sources
can generate emissions
Agricultural operations, those that raise animals and grow crops, restricted area
of gases and particulate matter. For example, animals contined to a barn or
large amounts of manure. Manure emits various gases,
(rather than field grazing), produce
 2.13.5 Sources of Gases and Particulate matters
There are many sources of gases and particulate matters in the atmosphere. For example,
(a) Burning of coal, fossil fuels -C0, Co,, SO,, NO,, hydro carbons, particulate matter.
(b) Fertilizer plants - NH,, NO,, hydrocarbons
(c) Chemical plants -C1,
(d) Steel plants - CO, CO,, SO,, F, particulate matter
(e) Automobiles -Co, CO,, NOy, hydrocarbon.o
The pelutants thus emited can be classified into two classes
(i) Primary pollutants
ii) Secondary pollutants.
Primary pollutants: The pollutants which are directly emitted to the atmosphere due to
various industrial activity is known as primary pollutants.
Example: NOy, CO, SOy, particulate matter.
Secondary pollutants: The pollutants which are not directly emitted to the atmosphere,
but are fomed by various chemical processes in the atmosphere are known as secondary
pollutants.
Example: Ozone, peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), formaldehyde, acrolein which are formed
through some chemical processes in the atmosphere ke., not oblained directly.
Ozone is an example of a secondary pollutant. It is formed when nitrogen oxides (NO,)
and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are mixed and warmed by sunlight. Ozone (0,)
is a major component of what is often referred to as smog. The ozone which is present In
the troposphere, or the atmosphere that is close to the ground, should not be confused with
beneficial ozone that is located in the stratosphere or upper atmosphere. The beneficial ozone
in the stratosphere helps to protect the earth from harmful ultraviolet light from the sun.
 Air Pollution and Control 69
213.6 Criteria Pollutants
There are six
pollutants which have the main
are primary pollutants contribution in creating
like carbon monoxide (CO), (SO),
air pollution. They
nitrogen dioxide
(NO,), lead (Pb) and particulate matter, with sulphur dioxide
secondary pollutants like ground level O,
2.13.7 Effects of Air Pollution
KThe airis an important component of the natural system of apark in its own right. The presence
ofpollution in the atmosphere results
critical factor atfecting the quality ofdirectly
in air quality degradation. Air pollution is also
other environmental resources as well as the human
made structures and tacilities in the area. Polluted air can and has
harmed park
avariety of ways depending upon the chemistry of the pollutant, weather and resources in
environmental
onditions, and the nature or sensitivity of park resources, Examples of this harm
vegetative discoloration and growth disruption from ozone, include:
. loss of aquatic species from stream acidification,
. shifts in nutrient availability from acid deposition, and
" erosion of building surfaces and rock formations.
Air pollution impairs visibility and contributes to climate change. Air pollution ca also
detrimental to human health.
2.15GARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
I s acolourless, odourless and tasteless gas. It is 96.5% as heavy as air and not soluble in
water.

2.15.1 Sources of Carbon Monoxide (CO)

It is produced by the following processes
) Incomplete combustion of fuel or carbon containing compounds.
2C + O, ’ 2C0
(ii) Reaction between CO, and carbon containing materials at elevated temperatures in
industrial processes e.g., in blast furnaces.
CO, +C’ 200
76
Fundamentals of Environment and Ecology

(ii) Dissociation of C0, at high temperatures

CO, C0 +0
(iv) Tobacco smoking.
(v) Natural processes eg.. volcanic action, natural gas emissions, electrical
. during storms,seed germination, marshgas production. discharge
The annual emission on a global scale is 350 million tonnes atmosphere.
(a) Transportation contributes about 64% of CO.
Motor Vehicles -’ 59.2%
Air Crafts ’ 2.4%
Rail Roads ’ 0.1%
(b) Miscellancous sources contribute about 16.9% of CO.The main component are
Forest Fires’ 7.2%
Agricultural Burning ’ 8.3%
(c) Industrial processes, mainly iron and steel industries and petroleum and parer
industries, constitute the third largest contributor of CO (9.6%) to the air.
2.15.2 Bio-Chemical Effects of Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide interferes with the blood's ability to carry oxygen to the cells of the
body. When inhaled it readily binds to haemoglobin in the blood stream to form carboxy
haemoglobin (COHb). Carbon monoxide, in fact, has a much greater affinity for haemoglobn
than does oxygen, so that even small amounts of CO can seriously reduce the amount of
oxygen conveyed throughout the body.
The usual way to express the amount of carboxy haemoglobin in the blood is as a percentage
of the saturation level, % COHb. The amount of COHb formed in the blood is related to three
factors.
i) the C0 concentration
(ii) the length of time exposed
(iüi) the breathing rate.
The following expression has been used to relate % COHb to these three factors:
%COHb =0.005 [Cojo.85 (at)0.63
where % COHb = CarbOxy haemoglobin as a percentage of saturato
(CO) = Carbon monoxide concentration in ppm.
a = aphysical activity level Co-efficient.
I= exposure time in minute.
For sedentary activity a = 1, while for heavy work, a factor of 3 is
" The reduction of oxygen in the blood stream also affects brains
sometimes used.
ability to perceive
and react.
" At 2.5 percent COHb, studies have shown an impairment of
perception.
judgment and visual
 CIS between 5 and I0 perCCnt.
Antidote for -Carbon Monoxide (CO) Poisoning
cO poisoning can be cured by exposing the affected person to fresh O,, where reverse reaction
occurs.
COHb+O, ’0,Hb + CO
215.3 Control of Carbon Monoxide (CO) Pollution
Extensive investigations have been and are being made for control of automotive emissions
along the following lines:
)Modification of internal combustion engines to reduce the amounts of pollutants
formed during fuel combustion.
() Development of exhaustsystem reactors which will complete the combustion process
and changepotential pollutants into more acceptable materials.
(iii) Development of substitute fuels for gasoline, which will yield low concentrations of
pollutants upon combustion.
combustion
(iv) Development of pollution free power sources to répkce the internal
engine.
Problem: Estimate the % COHb expected for a 1-hr exposure to 35 ppm (the federal standard)
for sedentary activities, and for heavy work.
Solution: We findfor sedentary activities with a = 1
% COHb = 0.005 [Coj0.85 (at0.63
= 0.005 (35j0:85 (60)0.63
= 1.35 percent
We find for heavy work activities with a =3
% COHb = 0.005 [Coj085 (at)0:63
0,005 (35)0.85 (3 x 60)0.63
= 2.7 precent

P16 OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NO)

oxides of nitrogen are known to occur, nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO,), nitrous
Six tetroxide (N,O) and nitrogen pentoxide
dinitrogen trioxide (N,0,), dinitrogen
Oxide (N, O), nitrogen, which are important air pollutants viz. NO and
two oxides of
(N,NO 0,).
However,
78 Fundamentals of Environment and Ecology
2.16.1. Sources of Oxides of Nitrogen
(i) Buming of fossil fuels.
(ii) Nitrogen based fertilizer plants.
(ii) Explosive industry.
(iv) Coal fired and gas fired furnaces.
(v) Textile industry.
(vi) Manufacture ofHNO,.
(vii) Decomposition of organic wastes.
(viii) Thunder showers.
(ix) Aerial oxidation of N, at high temperature ( 1000k)
(x) Automobile exhaust.
Nitricoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO,)are primarily involved in air pollution. No
colourless, odorless gas, but NO, has a reddish brown colour and pungent suffocating ods
The basic reaction leading to the formation of NO and NO, are
N, + O, 2NO
2NO t O, 2NO,
 80 Fundamentals of Environment and Ecology
(iv) NO, produces HNO, in the HNO, reactor.
3NO, + H,0’ 2HNO, + NO
2.16.6 Effects of NO,
() Respiratory iritation.
(ü) Impaiment of Lung defense.
(m) Headache.
(iv) Bronchitis.
(v) Loss of appetite.
(vi) Corrosion of teeth.
(vii) Leaf damage to sensitive plants.
217 SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO,)
ZA7.1 Sources of Sulphur Dioxide (S0,)
) Burning of fossil fuels.
(ü) Thermal power plants.
(ii) Fertilizer plants.
(iv) Textile industry.
(v) Steel plants.
(vi) Sulphuric acid plants.
(vii) Petroleum industry.
(vii) Oilrefining.
(ix) Smelting of sulphide ores.
There are four possible routes through which sulphur dioxide may
(a) Photochemical reaction.
react.
(b) Photochemical and chemical reaction in the
hydrocarbons. preaence of nitrogen oxides or
(c) Chemical processes in water droplets
containing metal salts and ammonia.
(d) Reaction on solid particles in the
atmosphere.
2.17,2 Effects of Sulphur Dioxide (S0,)
i) High solubility is water allows it to get
absorbed in the moist passages of uppe
respiratory tract, causing increased breathing rate and feeling starvation.
(ii) Suffocation.
(iii) Respiratory irritation.
(iv) Asthma and chronic bronchitis.
Irritation of throat and eyes.
 SMOG Air Pollution and Control 81

Smogis the combination of

of
smoke and fog.
218.1 Photochemical Smog
shen oxides or rogen,
iw
initiate a complex set of Various hydrocarbons, and sunlight come togethcr, they can
as photochemical reactions that
oxidants. produce number of secondary pollutants known
a
Ozone is the most abundant of the
itis responsible for many of the the photochemical oxidants, but
constriction and
iritation of the undesirable
mucous properties of photochemical smog, from chest
vegetation, it is not membrane
products and damage to in people, toto the oracking of rubber
ommon complaint to smog. itself a
cause of the eye irritation that is our most
Eve irritation iscaused by other
peroxy benzoyl nitrate,
components of photochemical smog, principally formaldehyde,
peroxy acyl nitrate (PAN) and acrolein.
Hydrocarbon + NOx t Sunlight ’ Photochemical Smog
H

H-C--C-0--0-NO2
H
(PAN)
The nrobable mechanism for smo¡ forming reactions is
V18.2 London smog
The smog formed from oxides of sulphur (SO), particulate matter coming from smoke an
humidity or water is known as London Smog or Sulphurous Smog.
The smog affected London city badly in 1952, killing about 4000 people. The fuel introdee
at that time was coal and was found to bemain culprit.
The mixture of smoke, SO, and fog is, chemically a reducing mixture and is also knowm
reducing smog.
SO, in the atmosphere gets converted into SO, by oxidation by a number of chemicals present
in the particulates. SO, so formed combines with water in the atmosphere forming afog of
sulphuric acid droplets. These droplets then condense on the carbon particles of soot (smoke).
and the smog which is formed known as sulphurous smog.
2S0, + 0,’ 280, sO, + H,0 ’ H,S0,

So, + H,0’ H,S0, H,SO, + O,’ H,SO,

2.19 CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
There are different devices for removal of particulate matter from the air.
()Cyclone Separator
Clean air out

Dust air in

Dust air out

 particle Air Pollution and Control 83
for diameter down to about 10um,the
fhisis simple
a
collection device of choiceonisinertial
articulate removal.economical unit with no moving parts that
usually acyclone.
effects for
spiral Particulate relies
containing is sent into aconical cylinder, where it is forced
air
nto athem flow path and
orces to move to the wallaccelerates.
of the
The centrifugal force imparted on the particulates
the cone
and are removed. The clean airchamber, where they then slide down to the bottom of
exits up through the centre of the cyclon.
i) Baghouse Filter

Clean air out

>Bag

-Dust air in

Dust out

When particles are smaller than 10 or higher collection efficiency is required, a bag house filter
can be used. There are widely used in industry. A bag house filter is similar to a conventional
home vacuam cleaner. It consists of a chamber housing natural or synthetic cloth bags through
filtered
which the dirty air is pumped. Particulates larger than the opening between the fibres are
electrostatic
out, smaller particles are removed by interception on the fibres themselves and by
attraction between the particles and fibres.
importance of sieving
Unce particles begin to accumulate the openings become smaller and the
opening in the bag
Increases. The cleaned air passes through the bag fabric and exits through an
are periodically
house chamber. Particulates collect on the inside surface of the bags. The bags
dust or the bag is isolated and air is blown into the bag
shaken to remove the accumulatedThe released dust falls into a hopper below.
om outside to dislodge particles.
even sub micrometer size particles.
Bag house filters are yery efficient and can remove
because the particulate may cake on the
cannot be used for wet air stream,
However,)
Alter.
they
corrosive to the filter fabric. They also cannot be used for
may be
Surface, orofthehighgases
temperature gas streams (90 - 100 °C for cotton or wood bags or
teatment
the filter material will result. y
260 °C for glass fiber bags) because damage to
 84 Fundamentals of Environment and Ecology
(iii) Scrubber
Clean air out

Water spray
Dust air in

Dust air out

to remove particulates from air. Scrubbers are

A scrubber is another device that can be used hot applications where bag
corrosive, or
of particular value where the contaminated air is wet, removal of larger particle sizes.
house cannot be used) Simple spray chambers can be used for
sprayed. The water droplets
Dirty air flows throngh a chamber into which water droplets are weight, and cause them to
accumulate on the particulates in the air, increase their size and
removed particulates in
settle more rapidly and efficiently than in a settling chamber. The off to a setting basis,
the collected spray water at the bottom of the spray chamber are drawn
tothe scrubber.
where the particulates are settled. The clarified water is usually recycled back
cyclone
For high efficiency removal of fine particles, a combination of venturi scrubber and
can be used. A fine mist is sprayed into the dirty air as it flows through the venturi. The air
then enters a cyclone, where the now large and heavy water laden particulates are removed
by cyclonic action. Particulate removal efficiency can be as high as 99 percent with a well
designed scrubber system. However, the air exiting the scrubber is saturated with water
vapour. In addition, the waste is stillpresent, but now it is in liquid form, requiring further
treatment, rather than in a solid form.

(iv) Electrostatic Precipitator

Discharge electrode (wire)

Dirty air in Clean air out

Collection plate
 AirPollution and Contro! 85
Afourth type of particulate control
high efticiency dry collector of
device is electrostatic precipitator (ESP). (fhe ESP is a
applyinga high electrical directparticulates from air. The particulate matter is removed by
current
wires. Afull scale ESP may
have
potential (30 - 75 kv) between alternating plates and
Asthe particle-aden gas stream
hundreds of parallel plates, with very large surface arcas
passes
givingthem a net negative charge. The through this ion-field, ions attach to the particulates,
plates, where they are neutralized and particulates then migrate to the positively charged
stick. They are periodically removed from ESP plate
Systaces by rapping the plates.
Eticiencies can be very high, even for small
Hectrostatic precipitators are commonly uscd particulates.
in
control air pollution form blast furnaces, cementelectric power plants. They are also used
to
facilities. kilns, metal roasters, and acid production

(v)Catalytic Converter

gas out
Control Control
reduction oxidation

gas in

Catalytic converter is used in the automobile engine for controlling emissions very effectively.
Three way catalytic converter is now available in the market. Three way means removal of
three pollutants such as CO, hydrocarbons and NO,. In this type of catalytic converter, CO
and hydrocarbon are oxidised to CO, and NO, is reduced to N, in the same catalytic bed.
This conversion takes place with the help of two different types of catalysts - reduction
catalyst and oxidation catalyst. Generally, platinum, rhodium and palladium are used as
catalysts:
(a) Reduction: The first step is the reduction step. Here, platinum and rhodium are used
aS catalyst. In this step, oxides of nitrogen specially nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide
(NO) are converted toharmless molecular nitrogen (N,).
2NO-’N, +0,
2NO,’ N,+20,
and
(D) Oxidation: The second step of the conversion is oxidation step. Here, platinum
volatile organic
Palladium are used as catalyst. In this step, carbon monOxide (CO) and
vompound (VOC) are converted to carbon dioxide (C0,).
2C0+0,’2C0,
Hydro Carbon +0, ’ C0, +H,0