Sekolah Lentera Kasih (Bali)

Title : Chemical Bonding

TERM 1 2024-2025

Name :
Grade : 9 Perseverance Score Parent’s Signature
Subject : IGCSE CS: Chemistry
Date : August 6, 2024

Model 1: Ionic Bonding

The compounds formed by metals and non-metals contain ionic
bonds. Metal atoms lose electrons to form cations. Non-metal
atoms gain electrons to form anions. The interactions between
cations and anions are ionic and are often called ionic bonds.
Simply, it is the coming together of opposite charges in a strict
ratio based on electrostatic attraction.
Ionic compounds form extended ionic lattices which contain an
‘infinite’ networks of ionic bonds.
Cations lose electrons so that they have an empty outer shell:
Group 1 metals lose 1 electron, Group 2 metals lose 2 electrons
and Group 13 metals lose 3 electrons.
Anions gain electrons so that they have a full outer shell: Group 17 non-metals gain 1 electron, Group 16 non-
metals gain 2 electrons and Group 15 non-metal gain 3 electrons. Gain or loss of more than 3 electrons requires
considerable energy and rarely occurs. This limits the combinations of elements that can form ionic compounds.
Critical thinking questions
1. What charge will a group 2 cation have?
2. What charge will a group 16 anion have?
3. What charge will a group 15 anion have?
Ionic compounds form in strict ratios of anions to cations to gain overall neutrality. For example, Ca2+ and
Cl- will form an ionic lattice in the ratio 1 : 2 (1 × 2 + 2 × (-1) = 0). The resulting ionic compound has the
formula CaCl2 and is calcium chloride. Notice that the cation is given first in the formula and name.

4. Predict the ions formed for each of the elements below.

iodine, sodium, oxygen, aluminium, nitrogen, sulfur, bromine, magnesium
5. Form as many ionic compounds as you can from this list and write down the formula of each.

Some ions contain groups of atom. These are called polyatomic ions.
Polyatomic ion
The groups of atoms in a polyatomic ion tend to stay together in
hydroxide: OH-
reactions. Some of the most common are listed opposite. Polyatomic
sulfate: SO42-
ions can form compounds with each other and with atomic ions.
sulfite: SO32-
Examples include: carbonate: CO32-
• calcium nitrate: Ca(NO3)2 nitrate: NO3-
• calcium sulfate: CaSO4 phosphate: PO43-
• ammonium chloride: NH4Cl ammonium: NH4+
Note: Two NO3- ions are needed to balance the charge of Ca2+, just as in CaCl2. To show this, brackets
are placed around the polyatomic ion with the two outside the bracket. In the other examples, only one
polyatomic ion is required and no brackets are used.
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6. Write down the formulae of the following ionic compounds. (Hint: remember to put the cation first,
to balance the charges and to use bracket if required around a polyatomic ion.)

(i) sodium hydroxide (ii) sodium nitrate

(iii) sodium sulfate (iv) sodium phosphate

(v) magnesium hydroxide (vi) magnesium nitrate

(vii) ammonium hydroxide (viii) ammonium sulfate

Model 2: Covalent bonding

The interaction between two non-metals is
covalent. Two (or more) non-metals form
covalent bonds. In a covalent bond, two atoms
share their electrons, in order for each to gain a
noble gas configuration. For most of the atoms
you come across, this will mean having 8
electrons in the valence shell – the octet rule.

For some elements in period 3 and below, most

notably S and P, this rule can be broken.
Compounds of these elements will be
discussed later.

Critical thinking questions

1. Label the bonding (shared) and non-bonding (unshared) electron pairs in F2 and O2 on the diagram.

When the non-metals are not in the same group, one atom shares electrons with
several other atoms. Consider the formula of a compound containing sulfur and
chlorine?

• sulfur: 6 valence electrons so needs 2 to reach 8

• chlorine: 7 valence electrons, needs 1 to reach 8

To achieve these needs 2 Cl and 1 S: SCl2 or sulfur dichloride. The atom on the left in the Periodic Table (S)
is given first and the prefix “di” shows there are 2 Cl atoms.

2. How many electrons do the elements below need to form an isoelectronic configuration with a noble
gas?
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine

3. Each covalent bond leads to each atom involved gaining 1 electron to its total. How many bonds do
the elements below need to form an isoelectronic configuration with a noble gas?
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine

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In chemical structures, sticks are used to represent covalent bonds: a
single stick represents sharing of 2 electrons and a single bond, 2 F F
sticks represents sharing of 4 electrons and a double bond and 3 S
sticks represents sharing of 6 electrons and a triple bond. Lone pairs Cl Cl
are shown as dots. The chemical structures of F2, O2 and SCl2 are O O
shown opposite.

4. What is the total number of valence electrons around each atom in F2, O2 and SCl2?

5. Show the bonding in the following molecules and include any lone pairs. (Hint: remember from Q3,
H can only form a single bond, C needs to form 4 bonds, etc. Elements can bonds to themselves and
can use single, double or triple bonds.)

NH3 N2 H4

N2 H2 CH3NH2

CH3CN CH2O

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Elements in the third period and below are able to fit more than 8 Cl O
electrons in their valence shell. Although many of their molecules do Cl
obey the octet rule, some exceed it, particularly when they are S H O S O H
surrounded by O, F or Cl atoms. Two examples are shown opposite. Cl
Cl O

6. What is the total number of valence electrons around the S atoms in SCl4 and H2SO4?

7. In SCl4, sulfur has 6 valence electrons and Cl has 7 valence electrons.

(a) What is the total number of valence electrons available to form all of the bonds and lone pairs?

(b) Count up the number of electrons in bonds and in lone pairs. Does it match your answer to (a)?

8. Show the bonding in the following molecules and include any lone pairs. (Hint: remember that the
number of bonds that O needs to make and that you can only use the electrons that are available).

SO3 SO2

Model 3: Ionic or Covalent?

Ionic bonding requires a metal and a non-metal. Covalent bonding occurs between non-metals.

Critical thinking questions

1. Predict whether the bonding in the oxides following elements will be covalent or ionic:

(a) sodium (b) magnesium (c) aluminium

(d) silicon (e) phosphorus (f) sulfur

2. Write down the formula of each oxide.